Anglais s5 cours 1
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- Phrase complexe : proposition principale dans laquelle on a une proposition subordonnée Phrase simples, composées, complexes
- Conjonctions de subordination
- Inversion sujet-auxiliaire
- LA PHRASE COMPLEXE : ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DES SUBORDONNÉES
- Langue et Affaires Anglais
| ANGLAIS S5
COURS 1 Énoncé et situation d’énonciation Énoncé : suite phonique ou graphique produite pas un énonciateur Situation d’énonciation : conditions de production d’un énoncé Énonciateur : Temps d’énonciation : Time : passé/présent/futur ≠ tense : temps grammatical La relation prédicative Couplage d’un sujet grammatical et d’un prédicat : S/P : I must dash off to the gym now I / dash ti the gym now Prédicat : ce qui est dit du sujet « S » au moyen de la base verbale et de ses compléments/ IL y a autant de prédicats que de bases verbales He closed the book get up and stood for a minute watching the play P1 : He / close the book P2 : he / get up P3 : he / stand for a minute watching the play P4 : he / coach the play Le prédicat est la partie signifiante qui se place en avant La prosodie Rythme et intonation - rythme : variation en durée et en intensité - intonation : variation de hauteur des syllabes La prosodie est porteuse de l’expression verbale de l’affectivité. Selon la place de l’accent, cela renseigne sur : - la nature grammaticale d’un mot (preSENT/PREsent) - formes emphatiques/formes assertives ( I CAN see it/Ican see it) - préposition/particules adverbiales (I’m waiting for the bus / What are you waintig for ?) - noms composés/groupes nominaux Intonation Elle détermine : - l’interrogation/simple constat : It’s raining, isn’t it ? (ton descendant = constat) It’s raining, isn’t it (ton montant = question) - La phrase assertive/question Discours prosodique (expression speech/discours atone (flat, tomeless) Mélodies de base : have you finish your homework ? Intonation descendante : fall Intonation montante : rise Fall : assertion courante : he asked for the adress of a photograph • Impératif : listen to me • Question : What are you looking for ? • Exclammation : What an interesting paper ! • Tags (fausse question) : lovely, isn’t it ? Rise : • questions fermées : Do you like apple ? • Questions expressives : how is your mother ? Accent d’intensité 3 règles principales : - Règles du lion : terminaison d’un mot consonne + i + voyelle Accent sur la syllabe précédant la 1ère consonne Ex : A ‘’ttenion – hesi’’tation – ex’’ceptionnel, de‘’licious, ex’’perience But : télévision - Règle en _ie : mots terminés par _ic : _cat, _ically, _icism, _ics Accent sur la syllabe précédent le _ic Ex : do’’mestic, pla’’tonic, ‘’cristicism, antibi ‘’otic But : politique - Règle en _ity : mots terminés par _ity Accent sur l’antépénultième (3ème syllabe à partir de la fin) Ex : ha’’bility, ambi ‘’guity, co’’mmodity Règle du lion Règle en _ic Règle en _ity Con’’venient Antici’’pation Be’’havior Sus’’picious Stimu’’lation Sepa’’ration Auto’’matic Scien’’tifically Philo’’sophically Characte’’ristic Dy’’namic Bio’’logically Responsa’’bility Impossi’’bility Assi’’duity Uni’’versity Plas’’ticity Cours anglais n°2 Alphabet phonétique QuickTime™ et un décompresseur TIFF (non compressé) sont requis pour visionner cette image. La phrase complexe Intro Une phrase complexe c’est l’intervention de plusieurs RP (relations prédicatives : couplage sujet/prédicat (base verbale + complément éventuel)) • Différence entre phrase complexe et phrase composée - phrase simple : 1 RP Adults may become dorbiful ( ???) of their ability to learn a new language. - Phrase composée : au moins 2RP juxtaposés ou coordonnés After the funeral her brother appropriated their parent’s house and she took the car har inhertame ( ?) - Phrase complexe : au moins 2 RP dont une subordonnée There is a critical period for learning a record language that shuts down around the orset of puberty (cette seconde partie est dépendante de la première car seule, elle ne veut rien dire). - La phrase composée coordonnée : au moins 2 RP coordonnés (and, or, but..) After the funeral her brother appropriated their parents’ house and she took the car as her inhertames They can run after the mouse and eat it. Autonomie grammatical : 2 propositions autonomes Solidarité sématique : 2 propositions liées par le sens Solidarité syntaxique : 1 sujet, 2 propositions - La phrase composée juxtaposée : au moins 2 RP juxtaposés ( : - ; ) autonomie plus grande que 2 RP coordonnés. 1/Deux points : (1) he had to scrap the game : safety work wat not finish P1 P2 (2) What she meant was : I want you to be weak P1 P2 Nature de la relation entre P1 et P2 : (1) justificative : color means « because », P2 explique P1 (2) expansive : color means « explanation » P2 répond à l’attente de P1 2/Virgule He offered her a seat, lookek, through the prints, praised them and explained they hadn’t the slightest chance of being published Relation sémantique étroite entre les propositions = jusxtaposition de segments mis sur 1 même plan. Association entre les différentes propositions. 3/ Point virgule (semi-color) He was a good-looking man : he was at the peak of his scholarly career : he was even feared by his colleagues. E (énonciateur) regroupe les différents aspects de la personnalité de « he » création d’un lien entre 3 caractéristiques de He. Le point virgule permet de regrouper plusieurs propositions indépendantes sans les dissociations (par rapport au point) Associations Dissociation Virgule deux points point virgule point
coordonnant You like them, don’t you ? P1 P2
You don’t like them, do you ? P1 P2
Le lien entre les 2 P est un miroir inversé. P1 annonce, P2 demande confirmation. Structures corrélatives Les structures corrélatives en « the more/the more » ,« the less/the less », « the more/the less », « the less, the more » supposent une binarité obligatoire. (1) The more you scratch, the more it itches P1 P2 (2) the less hear about you, the better I feel P1 P2 (1) augmentation corrélative marquée directement (2) progression corrélative inversement proportionnelle. ANGLAIS L3 COURS N°3 Phonology Semantics Syntax Pragnotics Ign Speech
Phoneme Morphene
Vocal Communicative Sarcastically System
Phrase complexe : proposition principale dans laquelle on a une proposition subordonnée Phrase simples, composées, complexes - I.Q tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a person’s intelligence = simple - Children who score very well as IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the « gifted » while those ??? do very poorly are traded into « remedial » programs. Complexe despite their prevalence, the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in the fields of education, psychology and neurosciences = simple
- Over the past year, the subjects of intelligence, a possible biological basis for intelligence, and ways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention = simple - This article is a short review of somme of these studies = simple - There seem to be two man camps on the sbject of intelligence = complexe - In one camp are the researchers aho not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence, but also believe that there is a biological switch that govern this intelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical = relative donc complexe - These reseachers also believe that IQ and this intelligence can be improved by external means, such as through diefary supplements or specific learning exercices = complexe - In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition of intelligence and sufffest instead that human intelligence is too complex. La phrase complexe : marqueurs de subordination
1/ Surbordonnants apparaissant seuls : After, (al)though, as, because, before, if, once, since… 2/ Combinaison de plusieurs termes : - terminés par that : in that, so that, such that, except that, in order that… - terminés par that facultatif : now (that), provided (that), supposing (that), considering (that), seeing (that) - terminés par as : as far as, as long as, as soon as, so long as, so as… - terminés par than : sooner than , rather than (au lieu de ) - autres : as if, even if, if only, as though, in case… 3/ Conjonctions corrélatives : combinaison de deux marqueurs, une conjonction dans la subordonnée et un autre terme dans la proposition englobante. If then ; although..yet/nevertheless ; as…so ; whether…or ; more/less..than as/so…that ; such..as ; such…that ; no sooner… than 4/ Autres indicateurs de subordination Marqueurs qui ne sont pas des conjonctions de subordination mais signalent un rapport de subordination - Termes en WH a- Subordonnées interrogatives : I wander WHO it can be b- Subordonnées exclamatives : I’m surprised HOW beautiful it turned out to be c- Relatives : this is the man WHO came yesterday - Relative en THAT - The man that came yesterday - The only one that is worth read - Attention : THAT relatif et conjonction (he said that he would come back) - Inversion sujet-auxiliaire - propositions conditionnelles - Had I known, I would never have come : if I had known - Were it not for you : if it were not for you - Absence de verbe conjugué - Thinking it was too late, he decided to stay home : as he thought it was too late. - Absence de signe de subordination : - Conjonctives : he said he would not come : he said that… - Relatives : he is the man I was telling you about : he is the man whom I was telling you about.
Human memory A set of stories where to put information. A set of processes that act on stories. 3 differents stories : - this sensory information storie - the short-term store - the long-temr store 3 processes - encoding - maintenance - retrieval �� Sensory informations store : ignored or paid attention to ignored, writtent over If paid attention to, encoded to short term store �� Short-term store : a mited storage capacity submitted to decay (from 12 to 30 seconds). Interference (new information displaces older information) mental rehearsal (repeat the information subvocally) / elaboration rehearsal (se répéter le mot dans notre tête). Long-term store : large quantity of informations, maintains informations for very long periods of time. attention SENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORY encoding
retrieval rehearsal Info not attended to forgetting forgetting Long term memory Declarative Procedural Semantic Episodic Like riding a bike Your last birthday party This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentence comprehension. We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in which small amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of a task and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage and computational system. We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntactic processing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious, controlled processing. Various forms of evidence are considered: the relationship between individual differences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntactic processing; the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing; and syntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory, poor working memory, or aphasia. The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specialized for assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determining sentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use of sentence meaning to accomplish further functions. We present a theory of the components of the verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis. (si vous voulez le texte dans son intégralité, je l’ai trouvé ici : http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/41/bbs00000441-00/bbs.caplan.html) En français : Cet article discute/s’intéresse au système de mémoire de travail utilisé pour la compréhension des phrases. Nous passons en revue l’idée que la mémoire de travail correspond à un système de courte durée où une petite quantité d’informations est simultanément stockée et manipulée /travaillée pour répondre à une tâche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compréhension de phrase s’appuie sur un tel système de stockage. On cherche à savoir si le système de mémoire de travail utilisé dans le traitement syntaxique est le même que celui utilisé dans les tâches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients et contrôlés. Les résultats expérimentaux suggèrent que le système de mémoire de travail verbal spécialisé/attribué à la structure syntaxique d’une phrase… On présente une théorie des composantes du système de mémoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les bases neuronales. LA PHRASE COMPLEXE - Proposition à verbe fini - Proposition à verbe non fini Verbe fini : le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne, du temps, du nombre (she goes out every night) Verbe non fini : teminaison est non révélatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing the forr causes delay) (rien compris !) LES SUBORDONNÉES À VERBE NON FINI 1. Infinitives en TO : some were forced tu work at night Elles peuvent aussi être introduites pas « as if to, in order to, so as to » 2. Infinitives sans TO : as always he tried to help her sort things out Elles peuvent aussi être introduites par « rather than ; sooner than » 3. Propositions en ING : standing there, she fixed him 4. Proposition en ED (participe passé) : embarrassed, she changed the subject Elles peuvent aussi être introduites par when, althought Le verbe non fini déclenche nécessairement une dépendance à une proposition à verbe fini. LES PROPOSITIONS À VERBE FINI 1. les subordonnées relatives : jouent un rôle de complémentation : introduction par WH, that ou rien She is known as as processing scientist, the researcher who paved the way for further experiments. Relative who paved the way for further experiments : expansion du syntagme normal : « the researcher ». 2 types de relatives : restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) : - restrictives : identification de l’antécédent permet de créer un sous groupe à l’intérieur d’une classe de référents : those who don’t understand can ask questions (c’est une idée ça !) - appositives : apportent une information supplémentaire sans identifier l’antécédent : this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neural network in L2 moderate subjects : précision apportée après-coup, souvent mise entre parenthèses. Type particulier : which : he never rang back, which rather surprised me : rupture intérative : commentaire de l’énonciateur.
AMNESIA
Amnesia is memomy less, generaly caused by a brain trauma. (amnesia due to psychological trauma is less well documented) - retrograde amnesia : less of memory of events prior to the trauma - anterograde amnesia : less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (the irability to form new memories) HM and the study of anterograde amnesia : - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy - As treatment, he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy - This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia. He has been unable to form new long term memories since the surgery. HM’s anterograde amnesia : - HM cannot form new memories of people or events : can’t remember his doctors/ can’t remember his testing sessions - HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery : some mild loss for the 2 years prior surgery. - Normal workinf memory (7+/-2) - Basically, he got stuck in time, when he had his surgery 1953) : il est resté bloqué au moment de son opération However, it turns out that HM’s performance improves on tasks : - miror drawing task : trace image while looking in mirror, this is hard to do/ HM’s performance, improves or this task oven though he doesn’t remember over having done it before. Bases on HM’S symptoms : multiple memory systems. (en regardant ce qu’il se passait pour lui, on a réussit à mettre en évidence plusieurs systèmes de mémoire) : - explicite (déclarative) memory : conscious / items be verbally expressed - two systems : episodic (the even of our lives) / semantic (information about the world ; the meaning of words) - Implicite (procedural) memory : non conscious ; expressed by improved performance or task.
LA PHRASE COMPLEXE : CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNÉES 2 types de comparaison : 1/ comparaison d’équivalence (=) ou de non équivalence (+/_) John is AS gifted AS Peter (équivalence) John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non équivalence +) John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non équivalence -) 2/ Comparaison de suffisance (enough/so) ou d’excès (too much) He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance) He is too bright to fail (excès) Subordonnés comparatives : - un élément comparé : he is as gifted/ he is too bright - un élément de comparaison : as Peter/to fail = AS AS + MORE THAN - LESS THAN Suffisance ENOUGH TO Excès TOO TO Exercices : trouvez le type de subordonnées : - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted (while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs - There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini / infinitive).In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of I.Q. as a measure of intelligence, but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence, such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1’ relative, restrictive). These researchers also believe that I.Q., and thus intelligence, can be improved by external means, such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises. (P1 et en souligné P14 conjonctive) In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition of intelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot be measured by a single score on a single test. These researchers also believe that intelligence can be improved, but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society. (P1 et en souligné P14 relative restricitive). instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot be measured by a single score on a single test. These researchers also believe that intelligence can be improved, but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society. (P1 et en souligne P1’ conjonctive) but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society. (P2 comparative)
Etude fonctionnelle : s’intéresse aux propositions subordonnées Fonctions syntaxiques : sujet/complément/attribut/adverbial Sujet : althought acquiring the grammar of one’s first language does seem to be subject to a critical period. Complement : - complément d’objet direct : I saw John - Complément d’attribut : I bought John a nice sweat - Complément propositionnel : its depends on John - Complément d’adjectif : she was busy typing a lettre Adverbial : complément circonstanciel Renseigne sur la circonstance du procès : lieu, temps, manière… Les conjonctions ont une valeur sémantique propre TEMPS After, before, since, until, when, while, as soon as, once LIEU Where, wherever CONDITIONNELLE If, unless, provided that, so long as, on condition that CONCESSIVE Thought, althought, while, whereas, even if, if, when CAUSE Because, since, as, v-ing BUT To, so as to, in order to, so that, on order that CONSEQUENCE So that COMPARAISON As if, as thought ANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen) a. he was living on his own b. b ; he was paralysed c. He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness, muscles spams ans rigiding (definition de l’épilepsie) According to DR Scaville, epilepsy is due to : a. the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres b. electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areas c. electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brain The hippocampus, the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situated a. in the cortex
c. in the brainstem How can you explain the plural « hippocampi » in « when he lost his hippocampi, Henry became frozen in 1953 » ? (le pluriel de l’hippocampe) Lashley’s experiments carried out on animals a. fit in with the precise nature of henry’a amnesia b. led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossible c. prove that rats and monkeys behave differently Henry’s amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampus a. in short-term memory b. in long-term memory c. in procedural memory d. in long-term memory formation HM can no longer a. play tennis
c. remember events prior to 1753 d. retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty seconds Henry’s case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus is unnecessary for the formation of long term memories necessary for unconscious long-term skill memories required for the formation of short-term memories
Today, henry likes listening to mystery shows going ice-skating watching detective shows doing puzzles Memory was largely studied befoe henry’s operation : true or false Henry’s case is now confirmed by other simular cases : true or false Henry has got lany friends : true or false He can now live on his own : true or false SCRIPT : AUDIO Key word : mental illness, procedure, ice pick lobotomy, emotion On january 17, 1946 : psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in the tratment of mental illness in the country.
Howard dully’s story a. How did he go to Washington ? by fly b. where did he go in Washington ? G.W university c. What did he want ? to see my files d. What did he love to do ? e. What did he find in his file ? f. What was he must interested by ? g. What did he want to understand ? h. How did was he ? i. Who want to see Dr Freeman ? j. What happened to Howard ‘s nother ? How old was he then ? k. What about the relationships between his stepmother (mère adoptive) and him ? l. What did his stepmother want ? H Dully s’est fait opérer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qu’il s’est passé, il va donc chercher son dossier médical. m. how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happened n. What did her stepmother decide to do ? Why ? o. Can you explain the term « word of the stock » ? (pupille de la nation) p. What questions have haunted thoward ? q. Did Howard dare to speak to his father ? r. What happened to his stepmother ? s. What did Howard decide to do ? t. What couldn’t howard believe ? Toutes les réponses sont dans le texte n°4 Voca :
Deserve : mériter Paper-route : ditribution de magazines dans les boîtes aux lettres Make it stick : soyez ferme ! Thrust : enfoncé Quiver : frémir Pathways : route qui relie un endroit à un autre Sever : couper = out off
This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentence comprehension. We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in which small amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of a task and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage and computational system. We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntactic processing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious, controlled processing. Various forms of evidence are considered: the relationship between individual differences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntactic processing; the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing; and syntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory, poor working memory, or aphasia. The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specialized for assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determining sentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use of sentence meaning to accomplish further functions. We present a theory of the components of the verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis. Texte 2 I.Q. tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a person's intelligence. Children who score very well on I.Q. tests are often tracked into programs for the "gifted," while those who do very poorly are tracked into "remedial" programs. Despite their prevalence, the true meaning and import of I.Q. tests are subjects of some controversy in the fields of education, psychology, and neuroscience. Over the past year, the subjects of intelligence, a possible biological basis for intelligence, and ways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention. This article is a short review of some of these studies. There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence. In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of I.Q. as a measure of intelligence, but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence, such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical. These researchers also believe that I.Q., and thus intelligence, can be improved by external means, such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises. In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition of intelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot be measured by a single score on a single test. These researchers also believe that intelligence can be improved, but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society. Let's start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on I.Q as a measure of intelligence. In July 1999, researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levels of two brain chemicals to performance on I.Q. tests. William Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels of choline and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteers. The researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended to have the higher scores on I.Q. tests. The researchers suggested that a manipulation of the levels of these brain chemicals, such as with dietary supplements, could increase I.Q. scores. Methods for increasing I.Q. scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number of academic articles. The well discussed and much publicized "Mozart effect" stems from a Wisconsin study that suggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ. Although a number of later studies suggest that the effect may not be as powerful as originally thought, many preschools have instituted programs such as "Mozart hour" to give their students the music's perceived benefits. Popular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised as brain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving and memory, although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims. There is even a firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called "Brain Gum". Their promise for the product is encapsulated in their phone number: 1-888 "IQ BOOST". In the field of child development, Linda Acredolo, a psychology professor at the University of California, Davis, has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11 months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers who were not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient, 102 for the non-signers). Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation on intelligence. Last September, researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineered mice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptor perform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice. The researchers suggest that this receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of a mouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step in making human beings "smarter". One question should be considered: Does performance on I.Q. tests really tell us something concrete about a person's intelligence? This leads us to the second camp of researchers-those who argue that traditional I.Q. tests do not tell the whole story. Howard Gardner, a professor of education at Harvard University, proposes the theory of "multiple intelligences" in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence, all of which must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a person's abilities and potential. Michael Howe, a psychology professor at Exeter University, has spent ten years studying the development of high achievers, such as Mozart, Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton. In his book Genius Explained, Howe argues that most "geniuses" don't have some ineffable quality that promotes their intelligence above that of the general population. He argues that what distinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion to their particular field of interest. Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an I.Q. test won't automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination and perseverance. Another researcher, Dr. Ken Richardson, also argues that the idea of an I.Q. score is too strict of a limit on the definition of intelligence. In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggests that the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasing understanding of the mind and its functions. His main idea is that intelligence is not a static thing that is coded for us by our genes, but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction between the mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we live. According to Dr. Richardson, society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do our genes. Thomas Edison's famous definition of genius as 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration suggests that intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature. However, it is the question of the origin of that mysterious 1% that fuels much of the interest in I.Q. scores, memory enhancing drugs, and mind-boosting music. Research results from the "smart mouse" and from the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be a biological quality, be it gene or chemical, that is the seat of that extra brain power that details the difference between "smart" and "not-smart", "gifted" and "remedial". Researchers like Gardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex for intelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene, chemical or concept of I.Q.. All of this intriguing research tells us that, just as in so many areas of science, more time and study is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer. In the end, the final answer to the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential that combines all of these studies in biology, psychology and cultural context. Texte 3 Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language? June 2000 by Lisa Chipongian The Myth of Missed Opportunities A popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window, or critical period, for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty. In his article, "Is There a 'Child Advantage' in Learning Foreign Languages?" Brad Marshall points out the harm this misconception can cause. Adults may become doubtful of their ability to learn a new language. Their teachers may become skeptical too, tending to "plod through their classes feeling there is little hope of success." When it comes to learning a foreign language, many believe that the adult brain is in "a state of shutdown" relative to the child's "neurological state of readiness." Early Foreign Language Instruction is "Not a Magical Tool" In The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition, David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguage instruction, "younger = better in the long run." But this is a general rule with plenty of exceptions. The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a second language even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood, long after any critical period has presumably come to a close. Both research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguage learners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictly necessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiency. Given the enormous variation in people's experience of second languages—even (or especially!) in the classroom—this ought to be a truism. As John T. Bruer, author of The Myth of the First Three Years, states: "One of the dangers of the...emphasis on critical periods, is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to when learning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur." Marshall agrees, pointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary school—what most researchers generally agree is the ideal time—is not a "magical tool for creating perfect second-language speakers." Timing, in other words, is not everything. Many assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning, but to other school subjects, like math and reading. Such beliefs, writes Bruer, have "raised needless concerns among educators." For instance, once a critical period is over, is "lost academic ground" irrecoverable? Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized application of critical periods to learning. The extreme view that children must learn a foreign language "early or not at all" grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly, like windows slamming shut. Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language? - Page 2 Foreign-Language Learning and Critical Periods The question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is not easily answered. But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunity closes completely. As with the visual system, the language system consists of several features, and is not, as Singleton writes, a "monolith." Certain features of the language system may be more related to distinct critical periods than others. According to Ellen Bialystok and Kenji Hakuta, authors of In Other Words, "The controversy over the optimal age for learning a second language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features and functions." The Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely Closes Although acquiring the grammar of one's first language does seem to be subject to a critical period which ends around puberty, the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period for second-language grammar acquisition is more complex. In The Myth of the First Three Years, Bruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learning; instead, he claims that there "may be some maturational constraints on second-language grammar learning." Bialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age for second-language grammar acquisition even further. They point out that learning some linguistic features, like tense, seems to be affected by age; yet other linguistic structures, like word order, "are resistant to any effect of the learner's age." In their book In Other Words, Bialystok and Hakuta state that syntax "remains accessible throughout life, even though the circumstances of our lives may muddy that access." Overall, "the amazing human ability to learn grammar," they argue, "remains with us as long as we remain human." Phonological Acquisition Is Age-Sensitive Unlike grammar learning, second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitive period. The decline in "unaccented learning" of a foreign language is progressive, however, and not characterized by a predictably abrupt change. According to a study by James Flege, similar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age. In other words, new sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar but not identical to those found in one's first language. According to Bruer, "we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period for phonological learning...." We do know, Bruer continues, that "the system remains plastic and able to tune itself to a second phonology...until early in the second decade of life." Vocabulary Learning Has No Critical Period Of vocabulary acquisition in one's first language, Singleton writes, "there is no point at which vocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease." There is also, Singleton suggests, no critical period for learning vocabulary in a second language. According to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings, semantic information seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a second language and native English speakers throughout life. In The Myth of the First Three Years, Bruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brain maturation: "how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation, as one would expect it would if it were a form of time-limited, experience-expectant learning. It seems instead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabulary comes on-line early in development and does not change as we mature." Conclusion: "Younger = Better in the Long Run" It may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age on one's ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruer's analogy of a reservoir that "gradually evaporates." This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abrupt decline in ability over time. Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisition, Bialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is more quantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative: "Overall...the evidence of a critical period for acquiring a second language is, at best, confusing." Although the evidence, argue Bialystok and Hakuta, indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults and children, and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological critical periods, they do state that "on average, there is a continuous decline in ability with age." Older beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a new language; however, over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginners. There seems then to be, according to Bialystok and Hakuta, a "tortoise-and-the-hare effect"; or as Singleton has put it, "younger = better in the long run." For this reason, we should by no means discount the importance of learning a second language early. As Bruer states, "The brain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning is increasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instruction too late." What should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step the issue of how best to teach foreign languages. The "age at which one first encounters a second language," explains Singleton, "is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level of proficiency attained in that language." We must not neglect other considerations, including what neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught and learned.
Texte 4 The Day His World Stood Still by Joanna Schaffhausen When twenty-seven year old Henry M. entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgery that was supposed to cure his epilepsy, he was hopeful that the procedure would change his life for the better. Instead, it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a new invention and Truman is forever president. The removal of large sections of his temporal lobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories, but his tragic loss revolutionized the field of psychology and made "H.M." the most-studied individual in the history of brain research. Henry grew up outside of Hartford, Connecticut, and was by all accounts an amiable young man with above average intelligence. He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery shows on the radio, which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of the program detective. Then on his sixteenth birthday, Henry had his first grand mal seizure during a celebratory trip to the city with his parents. After that point, the paralyzing seizures arrived with increasing frequency, until by the summer of 1953, he was experiencing as many as eleven episodes per week. He was unable to hold a steady job, and his prospects for independent living seemed dim. There were not many effective treatments available for epilepsy in 1953, so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henry's family turned to Dr. William Scoville and his experimental surgery. The Day His World Stood Still - Page 2 The Fateful Surgery The idea behind the surgery was simple. Seizures, as Scoville correctly reasoned, are caused by uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughout the rest of the brain. If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated, it should be possible to cure the epilepsy. Henry had the most common form of the disease, called temporal lobe epilepsy, which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located on either side of his brain. Dr. Scoville removed a large chunk of Henry's right and left temporal lobes, which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most important structures are duplicated. Altogether, Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain, which encompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices. As it turns out, the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage. When he lost his hippocampi, Henry became frozen in 1953, remembering very well the events before his operation but unable to create any new memories. He describes the experience like this: "Right now, I'm wondering, have I done or said anything amiss? You see, at this moment everything looks clear to me, but what happened just before? That's what worries me. It's like waking from a dream. I just don't remember." What Henry Can Remember, And What He Cannot At the time of Henry's surgery, the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophical writings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud. In the 1930s, Karl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain. He taught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks, then destroyed a part of their brain, reasoning that if the animals could not remember after the lesion, then he must have found the place where memories reside. After years of frustration, Lashley concluded that nothing short of near complete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks, and it seemed that biological study of memory was not possible. Then word began to spread of patient H.M., who had very localized brain damage but extreme memory deficits. Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henry's amnesia and began a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and which parts remained intact. As noted before, he had good recall of facts learned before his operation, meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed. Also, Henry was able to hold information in storage for very short periods of time. Most people can retain about seven pieces of information (a telephone number, for example) in memory for about thirty seconds, and Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks. Thus, his working memory (or scratchpad memory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus. The main problem for Henry was converting short-term memories into permanent storage, a process called consolidation. Based on the patterns of Henry's memory loss, researchers formed the following hypotheses about memory formation: 1.) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they do not require the hippocampus for formation. 2.) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain, but the hippocampus is necessary for the information to reach long-term storage. Once the memory is permanently stored, however, the hippocampus is no longer required. Said another way: the hippocampus is important for long-term memory formation, but not for memory maintenance or retrieval. This would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store any new memories afterward. Even with thousands of repetitions, he is unable to learn new facts. His doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning, and Henry is never sure where he is for very long. Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss, researchers have found one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally: skill learning. Often termed "procedural memory," skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory. You might recall your tennis lessons very well, but when you hit the ball over the net, there is no conscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task. Your backhand is simply automatic. For Henry, these kinds of motor skills are also automatic. He does not remember learning them, but his performance improves over time. Learning to trace a star using a reflection in the mirror, for example, is a task that most people do not do well the first time they try it. But with practice, it becomes quite easy. Henry shows the same kind of improvement on the star-tracing task, even though each time he tries it, he claims to have never attempted it before. Thus, skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memory that does not require the hippocampus. Henry Right Now Study of Henry's case has led to some very seminal findings about memory. Specifically, it seems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious, long-term memories, but not for unconscious, long-term skill memories or short-term recall. Perhaps even more importantly, Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and that it is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memory. As for Henry's current status, he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travels occasionally to MIT for memory testing. He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watching detective shows on television. His life is peaceful, if not completely happy. He worries often that he has done something wrong, and it is not possible for him to make any real friends since he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next. At times, he seems to have a sense of humor about his condition, as in the following anecdote taken from his biography, Memory's Ghost: The Strange Tale of Mr. M. and the Nature of Memory, by Philip Hilts: When walking down the corridor at M.I.T. with Henry, Dr. Suzanne Corkin made the usual kind of small talk. "Do you know where you are, Henry?" Henry grinned. "Why, of course. I'm at M.I.T.!" Dr. Corkin was a bit surprised. "How do you know that?" Henry laughed. He pointed to a student nearby with a large M.I.T. emblazoned on his sweatshirt. "Got ya that time!" Henry said. Mainly, though, he leads a life of quiet confusion, never knowing exactly how old he is (he guesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving his grief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it. Though he does not recall his operation, he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted a philosophical stance on his problems: "It does get me upset, but I always say to myself, what is to be is to be. That's the way I always figure it now." Often, Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation, as he told Philip Hilts in an interview several years ago: "Well, what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation. And somehow the memory is gone...And I'm trying to figure it out...I think of it all the time. I don't remember this, and why I don't remember that." "Is that worrisome?" Hilts wanted to know. "Well, it isn't worrisome in a way, to me, because I know that if they ever performed an operation on me, they'd learn from it. It would help others." Sadly, the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incredible contribution he has made to the field of psychology, but his tale stands as an important prologue to the ongoing story of memory research. Long after Henry passes on, "H.M." will be studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link between memory and brain.
Lecture 1 : Business organization in Britain and the USA. 1. Introduction : What is a business? - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy. The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america. Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy.
A business needs : customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials. Premises : ex : an office or a factory. Management and organization. A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention ; or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch ; by focussing on retaining key staff . A business needs to have clear objectives. An objective is a target that a business sets itself. Difference between long and short term targets. The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress. There are several objectives : -Survive in the market , -Break-even = cover costs , -High motivation amongst its employees, -Maximize profits, -grow in size , export , -diversify and sell different products , -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies.
Introduction : Public sector and private sector A) Sole traders B) Partnerships : The general partners . The sleeping partners . The salaried partner. C) Limited company. Introduction : Definition of a limited company. - Private limited companies. - Public limited companies. D) Franchising E) Types of businesses in America F) Mergeers and acquisitions G) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries. H) Multinational and conglomerates I) Blue chips Conclusion. Directory: anglais anglais -> Short answer anglais -> Hurricanes hurricane Fran 1996 1 basics anglais -> Novadays there are a lots of issues to play games : on smarthphone anglais -> American studies aspect of geography and sociopolitical evolution anglais -> Short answer anglais -> Guitariste – chanteur arrangements musicaux complets anglais -> American history (Full all chapters) Summary anglais -> The Ekumen 02 Download 229.49 Kb. Share with your friends:
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