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Economically TNCs can have positive and negative effects. Much of the money produced returns to the origin country. However host countries do receive jobs which supply wages. These wages can be taxed and spent to boost the economy of a host country. India’s service industry has increased GDP dramatically - increasing from a 40% share in 2003 to 52% in 2010. This has been driven by TNCs in cities such as Bangalore - companies such as Infosys and others. This is now the most valuable service industry sector in the world. An example of where TNCs are not having a positive economic impact can be seen in Angola. China has been aiding Angola’s development since the late 1990s. Large construction firms help Angola by obtaining construction materials and modernising buildings. However little money is put back into the economy by those firms as almost all employees are migrant workers who send the money back to China. This has resulted in some social tension as the Chinese workers do not mix with the Angolans, eat Chinese food and rarely purchase Angolan goods.

In terms of social effects, these can also swing either way. Some TNCs provide housing for their workers, such as Apple in Taipei. In Taipei there are also social issues. Many workers have complained about the working hours, relative to the wages received and the working conditions are rumoured to be very poor. Apple says it will not outsource to factories that do not keep to strict regulations in regard to the wages, work times and other conditions. However it appears that infractions occur. At the same factory it was also reported that 250 employees were fired, without severance pay due to complaints by the employers.

The environmental impacts of TNCs also seem to continue the trend and be negative. In 2005 it was revealed that Nike’s Asian factories were not only sweatshops but also disobeyed a number of pollution regulations to do with the removal of waste and air pollution. A key example of the negative effect of TNCs on the environment was the BP Water Horizon oil spill in 2010. BP’s deep sea exploratory well exploded, pumping oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The well had been constructed with sub-standard concrete and pumped over 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf over a 2 month period. The oil caused widespread damage to aquatic ecosystems. The Gulf is home to the largest population of sea turtles, with over 500 reported dead. The host country, the USA, had the southern coast damaged. Mangroves in Louisiana were killed by oil clogging airways in the rock. Bird populations were killed and the shrimping industry was destroyed, which also resulted in economic loss. Elsewhere, TNCs in Chongqing in China have created the most polluted city in the world, where over 10 million people in the greater urban area cannot access clean water from the river Yangtse.

Therefore we can see that overall the impacts of TNCs on host countries tend to be negative with very few positive effects arising. (10)

Mark scheme for the essay questions

Assessment criteria	Level 1 1-10 (midpoint 6)	Level 2 11-20 (midpoint 16)	Level 3 21-30 (midpoint 26)	Level 4 31-40 (midpoint 36)
Knowledge of content, ideas and concepts	Basic grasp of concepts and ideas; points lack development or depth.	The answer is relevant and accurate. Reasonable knowledge. Imbalanced theories	Sound and frequent evidence of thorough, detailed and accurate knowledge	Strong evidence of thorough, detailed and accurate knowledge
Critical understanding of the above	Incomplete, basic.	Reasonable critical understanding of concepts and principles with some use of specialist vocabulary.	Sound and frequent evidence of critical understanding of concepts and principles, and of specialist vocabulary.	Strong evidence of critical understanding of concepts and principles and of specialist vocabulary.
Use of examples/ case studies to support argument Maps/Diagrams (when used)	Superficial Ineffective	Examples show imbalances and/or lack detail and depth Some relevance	Examples are developed, balanced and support the argument Effective	Examples are well developed and integrated. Fully integrated
Evidence of synopticity: Connections between different aspects of the subject ‘Thinking like a geographer’	No evidence	Limited. Some ability to identify, interpret and synthesise some of the material. Limited ability to understand the roles of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.	Strong Some ability to identify, interpret and synthesise a range of material. Some ability to understand the roles of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.	Full There is a high level of insight, and an ability to identify, interpret and synthesise a wide range of material with creativity. Evidence of maturity in understanding the role of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.
Quality of argument – the degree to which an argument is constructed, developed and concluded	Language is basic; arguments are partial, over simplified and lacking clarity. Little or no sense of focus of task.	Arguments are not fully developed nor expressed clearly, and the organisation of ideas is simple and shows imbalances. Some sense of focus of task.	Explanations, arguments and assessments or evaluations are accurate, direct, logical, purposeful, expressed with clarity and generally balanced. Clear sense of focus of task.	Explanations, arguments and assessments or evaluations are direct, focused, logical, perceptive, mature, purposeful, and are expressed coherently and confidently, and show both balance and flair.

Question 19.

Analyse the factors that cause differences in the hazards posed by volcanoes around the world.

Volcanic eruptions pose differing hazards around the world due to a number of mainly physical factors associated with their eruption. A hazard is something that possesses a danger to humans or human settlements and history shows us a number of different ways in which volcanoes can pose hazards.

The first factor which in my opinion most importantly affects the hazard posed by a volcano is the type of eruption. This tends to depend on the type of plate margin and subsequently the type of lava present. More effusive volcanoes tend to occur at constructive plate margins where plates diverge. At these margins plates diverge, weakening the lithosphere which can then be melted by magma which can then rise to the surface. At these plate boundaries lava tends to be basaltic meaning it has low silica content. This lava will therefore allow gaseous bubbles to expand, preventing a build-up of pressure and preventing an explosive eruption from occurring. The main threat with these Icelandic or Hawaiian style eruptions is the lava flows associated. Basaltic lava is not at all viscous, meaning it is more fluid and can run for much greater distances before solidifying. An example of an effusive Hawaiian eruption was seen in 1992/3 from the Sicilian Mt Etna. 7.6km2 of lava was released over 473 days and the lava flows covered crops grown on the fertile soils on the flanks. The main danger of the lava flow tends not to be human life but instead to homes, infrastructure and crops or water supplies. For example to prevent lava flows reaching the town of Zefferana a 400m long, 20m high barrier was erected and along with help from the US marines, explosives were dropped into the lava tube and concrete blocks into the main flow to try to slow it down. Whether or not these efforts worked, the lava stopped 850m from the town. These effusive eruptions can be very costly however. For example, the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull in 2010 caused the eruption of ash which aggravated plans to access Europe for 6 days by air, at an economic cost of £250 million a day. However there was little threat to human lives or infrastructure.

More explosive eruptions tend to occur at destructive plate margins where high intensity melting of the subducting plate results in the formation of rhyolitic lava or andesitic lava. Andesitic, and to an even greater extent, rhyolitic lave have high silica content which prevents gas bubbles from expanding, leading to a build-up of pressure released in a much more explosive eruption, Plinean or Peleean in style. These eruptions such as Mt Pinatubo in 1991 are much higher on the VEI scale and bring a much greater degree and number of hazards. These eruptions are associated with pyroclastic flows or nuee ardent, powerful explosive clouds of gas, ash and tephra which can be at excess of 300C and travel at speeds of 500mph. These pyroclastic flows can travel many kilometers, 16 in the case of Pinatubo and if caught in their path buildings are destroyed, trees flattened and people killed. 854 died as a result of Pinatubo. These explosive eruptions can also cause torrential rainstorms, leading to the formation of lahars. They erupt vast quantities of harmful gases such as SO2 and CO. These can have worldwide effects, for example the Mt Pinatubo eruption caused a temporary 0.4C increase in global temperature, which could have melted ice in Antarctica.

Another physical factor is the location and physical geography of the area. For example, Mount Okmok erupted in 2008 with an eruption which had pyroclastic flows and vast volumes of ash and tephra as well as reaching 4 on the VEI. However nobody was with a 40km radius due to its remote location in Alaska. The hazards were minimal. Population density of the area is therefore a key factor in the differing nature of hazards posed by eruptions. On the flip side the Nevada del Ruiz eruption in Colombia 1985 was only so dramatic in its tragedy due to the physical geography. Its altitude meant that there were vast deposits of ice and snow surrounding the central vent of the volcano. The melting of these led to the development of 4 thick lahars. Again through the physical geography of the area it had a key role to play. Beneath the volcano there were 6 river valleys which the lahars travelled down. This led to them doubling in size by the time they hit the towns in the shadow of the volcano. Over 23000 people were killed by the lahars, making the eruption the second deadliest of the 20^th century. Another example of the location and physical geography playing a key role is the eruption associated with that of La Cumbre Vieja on the Canary Island of La Palma. Due to its coastal location, an eruption would see a large landslide into the Atlantic Ocean which would create a tsunami. Some models suggest that this could be as much as 1000m in height, almost unimaginable. This would bring utter devastation to the west coast of Africa and the east coast of the USA, and cities such as New York.

Different volcanoes also pose different hazards around the world depending on some human factors such as the ability to plan and predict the events and how effectively they can deal with the secondary impacts associated with those eruptions. For example in the Philippines the eruption of Pinatubo was predicted by the PHILVOCS and the USGS due to the combination of seismic activity, phreatic eruptions, changes in gas emissions and by using tilt meters to detect an inflation of the dome. In many ways the numbers of warning signs that can be detected change the nature of the hazard. This allowed the evacuation of 60000 people from the vicinity to be conducted in a calm and composed way. This prevented overcrowding in camps of those displaced and subsequent spread of disease like dysentery and typhoid was reduced. Food and water supplies could be provided. 847 died due to the eruption, but without the evacuation, estimates suggest that up to 50000 more would have. In contrast there was no warning of the eruption at Mt Nyiragongo in the DRC in 2002. Panic set in here and 400000 fled to neighbouring Rwanda. There were food shortages, poor accommodation and communicable disease spread quickly. Due to poor planning and preparation 80 also died of asphyxiation of CO2, a hazard which would be and was more ably dealt with following the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull where face masks and goggles were handed out to prevent respiratory problems and eye irritation.

A volcano will also present different hazards depending on the stage of life it is in. Many volcanoes, most even, are extinct and so pose no risk. It is only in the regions of the world where volcanoes are active that they will pose a risk. Looking at volcanoes which occur in chains over hot spots the hazards associated will differ dependent on the stage of development that the volcano is in. Mauna Loa is more recently formed so results in effusive Hawaiian style eruptions with the low threat of lava flows, lahars and emission of gas and ash. However when these volcanoes start to develop and track across the hot spot their eruptive nature changes becoming more explosive until they reach the rejuvenated stage where there are more pyroclastic flows etc.. The Hawaiian volcanoes will become a more hostile place to live in as their volcanoes develop.

In conclusion the hazards proposed by volcanic eruptions differ vastly depending on the type of margin, lava associated, the age of the volcano, its location, the physical geography of the area, and human ability to prepare for an eruption. Even with needed monitoring, planning and preparation, the magnitude of an eruption as physical events will always result in them providing a diverse range of destructive hazards, whether they affect infrastructure and farm lands, contaminate water supplies or at their most extreme, human life. (1335 words)

Sustainability in the context of urban areas refers to the ability of a population to thrive socially and economically but without over using resources and damaging the environment for the future generations. Large amounts of planning and management processes are undertaken throughout urban areas in order to maximise an area’s sustainability. This management and planning varies across the globe.

Curitiba in southern Brazil has the 5^th biggest economy of cities in Brazil. The city acts as one of Brazil’s financial hubs. Nevertheless Curitiba also has a strong manufacturing pedigree with the South American headquarters of Volvo trucks located here. As a consequence the city’s population swells to over 4 million during week days. In order to cope with such large numbers of people the local government had to find a solution to the congestion throughout the city. After much consultation it was decided that the city would be pedestrianised. Furthermore a deal was secured with the local Volvo factory to supply a new form of bi-articulated bus. These buses travel along designated routes carrying over 10000 passengers per day each. The Rapid Bus Network as it is known has been calculated to be 500 times cheaper than a subway system. Unlike a subway system the network can increase the number of buses in response to varying demand. The Curitiba RBN operates cost effectively, making it extremely economically sustainable.

London is also a financial hub. Unlike Curitiba it has adopted an underground train system. The system is the oldest in the world, 150 years old. This has caused many issues that other transport systems would not experience. The old tunnels need constant repair and the operational costs of the old stations far exceed that of modern subway systems. Nevertheless authorities have endorsed strategies that have made the underground system economically and financially sustainable. Over 80% of the operational costs are covered by ticket fares. With a new £10 billion improvement plan over the next 10 years, the figure is set to rise.

One of the main issues faced by any urban environment is the disposal of waste. Curitiba has adopted a unique method for dealing with such a problem. The bin men travel to the poorer suburbs. Here they exchange fruit and vegetables for waste materials that have been collected to be recycled. This not only gives incentives for people in the city to recycle, but it helps less waste on the streets go to landfill. Thanks to such initiatives Curitiba is able to recycle 75% of all of its waste, far more than almost any MEDC urban environment. This has helped the city become highly environmentally sustainable.

In the east of London new projects have been devised since 2000 to try and improve the environmental sustainability of the area. One of the main projects was the Greenwich Ecology Park and the O₂ arena, one of the premier indoor arenas across the globe. Architects used the large surface area of the roofs to capture rain water and use it to flush the toilets in the facility. In addition the Greenwich Ecology Park was opened. It consists of woodland and open parkland to allow people to walk and observe local ecosystems. Such parks are extremely environmentally sustainable as they act as CO₂ sinks as well as a place to support local wildlife.

Flooding is a major issue throughout the globe. Curitiba experiences flooding on a regular basis due to its close proximity to the Amazon rainforest. As a result urban planners decided to build large reservoirs to hold flood waters and prevent flooding. In its self this idea is extremely sustainable. However designers decided to integrate the reservoirs into a parkland with attraction events such as boating as well as waterfalls and fishing. The project has been a huge success and allows the city’s population to be no more than a short bus ride away from the park. This area will continue to perform its social and environmental function for years to come and will not drain resources. This makes the city parkland and reservoirs very sustainable.

Fortunately London does not have the same risk of flooding as Curitiba. The main issue in London is the lack of housing. In Stratford in east London the Olympic site is under construction. The 2012 games are being marketed as the most sustainable ever and with good reason. For example the Olympic village which consists of 1500 flats is not going to be destroyed after the games. Instead the flats will be renovated and sold to the public at affordable prices. This scheme will not only provide money to the Olympic fund but provide affordable housing to an area in the centre of London.

Cities often act as centres for a wide range of jobs. The most successful and sustainable cities will demonstrate a job market that is stable and has longevity. Curitiba is home to the South American HQ for Volvo trucks. This has provided over 1000 jobs alone. Furthermore the city authorities worked in conjunction with Volvo in order to design a revolutionary bi-articulated bus. This has made Curitiba a beacon for mass transport throughout the globe. Their approach by partnering Volvo has been so successful the system has been suggested a model for the redevelopment of Baghdad.

The 2012 Olympic Games act as a way in which London can be the most sustainable games ever. This claim must incorporate all aspects of the games including jobs. As a result the London Olympic committee has pledged to provide 20% of all the jobs on the Olympic park to job seekers within the local area. Furthermore due to plans to maintain the Olympic site as a prime sporting venue after the games it is likely that many of these people will keep their jobs. This provides social and economic sustainability to the area by ensuring that improvements are not temporary whilst maintaining their longevity.