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Chapter 1: Introduction

Water has become the most compelling global environmental concern of the 21^st century. Scarcity is increasingly plaguing communities around the globe. Finding effective solutions is critical. “For millions of people around the world, getting it right is a matter of life and death.”(Kirby, 2005) While there is global recognition of the problem of water scarcity there is no agreed upon solution. The years leading us into the new millennium brought movement away from centralized infrastructure projects as nations and international organizations began to appreciate the limits of these and adopted an Integrative Water Resources Management (IWRM) model that supports local institutional development and stakeholder involvement.(Ostrom, 1990, UN, UNDP, UNDESD, UNEP, FAO, WHO, UNICEF, WMO/UNESCO, Global Water Partnership, World Water Council, Asian Development Bank) The success of today’s water resources management systems in meeting today’s demand and looking to tomorrows needs, however, is tentative. The World water community continues to look for greater insight into how to better manage our water resources. It is with this that I have endeavored through my research to understand the foundations of a governance system that supports an effective water resources management system, i.e. is sustainable and supports the needs of a community.

The global community has embraced the importance of IWRM that incorporates decentralized systems that represent local stakeholder interests at the basin or catchment level. Further, it is generally assumed that such a system is dependent on good governance that provides for a system of institutions that supports the needs of a society through balanced and cooperative relationships. However, a consensus as to the forces that support a system of good governance and consequently a sustainable water management system does not exist. While each community around the globe is unique lessons learned from both successes and failures provide valuable knowledge for those involved with water everywhere.(Global Water Partnership Forum, 2006)

Figuig, an oasis in the Saharan Desert of Morocco, provides a compelling backdrop to understand the foundations of a sustainable water management system. The community that has made this home has survived for centuries by adapting to its own natural environment with limited outside interference. A longitudinal study of Figuig and its ability to sustain an effective water resources management system provides valuable insight into the importance of social, political, and legal institutions developed gradually over centuries to support the values of the community. As system that survived relentless challenges of water scarcity in a desert oasis for more than a millennium, today faces a crisis unparalleled in history, one that many of its residents believe threatens its long-term survival. The contrast provides important comparative benchmarks. Marked changes in policy directly impacted social, political, and legal institutions that supported an effective governance system and water resources management system, and subsequently undermined the important foundations of a successful system as my research reveals. My research was guided by the following questions: What are the supporting factors that allowed the system to survive? What changed? How did this challenge the current system? And what are the implications for other systems around the globe?

In answering these questions I endeavor to develop a theoretical understanding of the foundations of good governance and integrative water resources management. I theorize that for a system to be successful it must be supported by history, tradition, the legal structure (even if informal) and strong social values that perpetuate the value of water. A foundation of values supported by history, tradition, and environmental sensitivity within a supportive, and carefully balanced, robust system of legal, political and social system of governance is essential to support a sustainable system. Disregard for these fundamental elements in developing systems often result in ineffective solutions.(See Chap 2)

“Good governance” has become the catch phrase of the twenty-first century.(Rogers, Hall, 2003) There is often a limited awareness of the fundamental underpinnings of these governance structures however.(Kooiman, 2002) This creates a theoretical rather than normative understanding of how institutions effectively manage a system of water resources to support the needs of a community for the long-term. In looking for real answers to real problems we must look to “real” solutions.

Good governance as it relates to water resources management must incorporate the factors that create an appropriate balance of public, private and social activity, according to Kooiman.(Kooiman, 2002, 1993) How are these developed? What forces shape an effective legal framework? How can a system balance the interests of private actors and market controls with society’s need for equity and a sustainable environment? What are the key elements of demand management? To answer these questions and gain a greater understanding of good governance, as it applies to water resources management, we must appreciate the important social, economic, physical, political, and legal factors that influence the system.

Water resources management, inherently, requires an interdisciplinary understanding of the system of governance and the many factors that play a vital role in supporting or detracting from its effectiveness. To effectively promote system development, we must carefully consider the foundations of civil society that created institutions in the past .(Ostrom, 1992, Global Water Partnership Forum, 2002)

A community and its social, political, legal, and economic institutions are often affected by its geographical location and history. It must be assumed that the natural environment has affected the process of establishing a system of relationships and rules to support its viability. Technologies are developed and applied to support local needs, and concomitantly a unique social, political, legal and economic culture emerges. As a result, institutions evolve to support a complex interchange of relationships at various levels.

As much of the world embraces modern technology and looks to economic development, our historic relationship with our natural environment and the relevance of its impact on the structure of the many legal, political, and social institutions that govern a community is often overlooked. As a result, our ability to develop at a sustainable rate is complicated by a limited supply of valuable natural resources that can often not be easily replaced or replenished, thus, are rapidly depleted.(Postel, 2004, Brooks, 2004) As in the case of water, scarcity now plagues every region of the globe.

There is a global consensus that dams and other large-scale, supply-centric projects, while they may have supported industry and brought water to millions, do not provide an adequate solution to the problem of water scarcity.(Ostrom, 1990, 1992; Postel, 2004, Goldsmith, 1996, Global Water Partnership Forum, 2004) From much experience, both successes and failures, we have moved beyond the application of centrally planned technologies on a national or regional scale to deal with water problems where they are happening. While many problems have originated from national, regional and international forces, (i.e. pollution, population growth, global warming, and over-extraction), the same problems are affecting local populations relative to their unique circumstances. As water problems impact everyone at various levels, solutions must require collaboration on varying scales.(Global Water Partnership Forum, 2004; Lane 2004)

The world water community has begun to accept the importance of integrative water resources management. Establishing a system that relies on local stakeholder involvement in the planning, developing and maintaining of water management systems is assumed to be a principle component in designing effective and sustainable systems.(Ostrom, 1990, 1992; Global Water Partnership Forum) Incorporating a balance of private and public actors with civil society, however, demands a strong system of governance.(Rogers, Hall, 2003, Kooiman, 1997, 2002) A system of legal controls and policies is developed relative to the unique environmental, socio-political, cultural and economic factors of a particular community that allows it to develop and support an effective governance structure.

A superficial understanding of the institutional structures governing a particular community may lead one to believe that a particular group of actors or processes have been the driving force in creating a policy infrastructure that would provide the most efficient sustainable water management system, as they may be the most apparent. A more careful analysis would most likely include a much broader base of stakeholders and community inputs and actors. An effective balance of social justice, cultural values, economic principles, management structures, political legitimacy and the incorporation of traditional and modern technologies are essential for the efficient development of a functional water governance system. Further, internal and external institutions and controls provide the legitimacy necessary to effectuate change.(Rogers, Hall, 2003) An understanding of the foundations of the community through an appreciation of history and value offers insight into how this balance developed and how change may enhance or offset this balance. Change that does not incorporate the power of history and community and thus does not appreciate values that motivate social behavior is inherently limited by ignorance and disequilibrium.

One location in which water has exerted an overwhelming influence on the development of social, economic and political structures is the small Oasis city (15,000-20,000 people) of Figuig. It is located in South-East of Morocco. Given its geographic position and its unique environment and politics, it offers valuable insight into the underpinnings of an effective water resources management system. Water has shaped Figuig’s socio-economic and political institutions throughout its history.

Figuig was established more than 1000 years ago at the edge of the Sahara desert, south of the Atlas Mountains. It has survived due to a vital supply of water from local springs and a small branch of the Ziz River, Zozfana, that passes along the edge of the Oasis. This limited supply of water resources and its geographical distance and independence from other communities limited Figuig’s growth and development. Moreover, its political independence from other communities and the central government of Morocco resulted in a culture of self-sufficiency.

A stopping point on the caravan routes between Tlemcen and Timbuktu, the Oasis had a stable economy that thrived on trade with merchants en route and a productive agricultural base. The many tribes that had converged over the years to shape the community of Figuig, formed into separate groups called Ksars. Each Ksar had its own local governance institutions, and separate farm lands. Throughout Figuig’s history, the Ksars were often in conflict and only the fittest Ksars survived. The seven Ksars that eventually evolved and continue to characterize the city today maintained a balance of power and interests to allow Figuig as a whole to thrive economically, socially, and politically. While feuding amongst each other, they demonstrated remarkable solidarity when challenged by external forces such as the central government of Morocco, the Ottoman Empire, or the French Colonists.

The interplay of social, economic, and political structures sustained a relatively stable community, measured by population and economic activity, for generations. The critical importance of water in the survival of Figuig placed water institutions at the forefront of the city’s governance structure. A check on independent interests and instability was maintained by a distributed governance infrastructure that developed relative to its history and social values that included the sustainability of the Oasis, hence a reliable resources management system at the center. A system of Water Councils maintained a balance of demand and supply through legal, political, and social instruments. Each maintained its legitimacy by supporting the needs of the community through effective water resources management that required knowledge and experience.

Figuig’s governance institutions were further reinforced when the French colonial occupation tried to impose a new central authority in 1912. The populations of Figuig reverted to these institutions as an act of resistance. The French quickly realized that it was to their advantage to allow the local governance institutions to continue to operate to enable them to focus their attention on curbing Figuig’s support of the Algerian insurgency.

Figuig continued to thrive socially and economically. It wasn’t until after Morocco achieved independence from the French government in 1956 that the national government, lead by the King, moved to extend the reach and scope of central controls beyond urban centers. Governance structures that had developed for centuries in many communities, including Figuig, were dissolved and replaced by a national legal system that brought officials appointed by Rabat to create a stronger state system. The Water Councils of Figuig were dissolved and the local legal system was reformed to more efficiently compliment the State system. Water property rights at both the individual and Ksar levels were preserved under the new legal system, as it deferred to local precedent as long as it did not contradict the national code.

Since 1956, the city has faced challenges to its social, political, and economic foundations. Figuig, today, is faced with a water crisis unprecedented in history. Today, many argue that the Oasis is fighting for its survival.(Figuig Interviews, 2005) While we can appreciate the impact of population growth, rise in standards of living, and changes in governance, a question we seek to answer is “what are the important factors that undermine the survival of a community that sustained itself for centuries.”

The relationship between a community and its environment in every part of the world is unique and to effectively support a sustainable resources management system it is important to understand the forces that shape the community, to appreciate their strengths and weaknesses, before incorporating new rules, technologies and imported values.(World Water Forum, UNESCO World Water Assessment Program) Without careful consideration of the environmental variables, we can not effectively develop prescriptions to support an effective and sustainable institutional framework that ensures social and environmental viability. Those involved in water systems development often look to models of success in developing economies, and guiding principles (such as market-based pricing) that have proved successful in the West.(Lee and Lawrence, 1986) It is assumed that wealthy nations are able to apply the best technologies in the most stable environments. Other systems, including those in developing economies, are often undervalued, but can offer equally valuable knowledge and insight to the bank of water management resources development wisdom.

Many established systems that have proved sustainable in the long-term, are perhaps, able to shine even greater light on the impact of change in technology, policy, law, environmental forces, or economic influences than those that began in an advanced planned community in the industrial world as they were more likely developed relative to a particular problem and community and adapted to changes over time. Much of the developed world emphasizes the importance of market forces to create efficiencies in traditional systems.(Anderson, 2001; Briscoe, 2000; Kettle, 2002) They often rely on economic models that do not incorporate history and social values. The use of these models often is misleading, or counter-indicative. The case of Figuig directs our attention to the importance of understanding how numerous factors, beyond price and profit positively or negatively impact the community.

We can not underestimate the value of systems that evolved gradually over time and are steeped in tradition. Path dependency theory suggests that institutions are rooted in history and evolve relative to the experience of a group or community.(North, 1993) Thus, they can not be undervalued. In fact, such a theory suggests that the community that looks back and supports tradition to look forward is perhaps more likely to succeed. Often considered simple and unsophisticated, these “traditional” societies are nurtured through an interplay of institutional mechanisms that balance social, political, and private actors that result in their effectiveness over time.(Maas and Anderson, 1978; Glick, 1996; Levin, 2004)

Figuig offers us a compelling backdrop to understand the foundations of a sustainable water management system in a limited system. For centuries social, political, and legal institutions have evolved to preserve the oasis’ culture of independence. Recent changes in policy at the national level have undermined local control of institutions and imposed administrative oversight from national government appointments. A lack of control by the local community, and the dissolution of important institutions brought about social, political, and legal changes that undermined the carefully balanced local governance system that supported the community.

An examination of this established system with a view toward understanding the impact of identifiable influences and subsequent change in the community reveals important elements of good governance in preserving and distributing water resources. Further, it underscores the importance of exploiting history and community value to support institutional development and community involvement. Moreover, an examination of the ethno-political relationships among social groups and the ecological relations governing water allocation in this isolated setting allows us to better appreciate how water resources impacted the community’s social system and were incorporated into its sense of value.

My research seeks to gain an understanding of not only what makes a good governance system that supports effective water resources management, but learn what conditions enable the effective development of legal, political and social institutions. It is assumed that the effectiveness of a water management system in meeting the needs of a community is dependent on the governance structure and the balance of stakeholder interests alongside social, legal and political forces.(Bonn, 2001) An understanding of the underlying foundations of the governance system that supports or detracts from a positive balance of influences requires a detailed study of laws and rule-making, policies and social institutional arrangements ranging from the community to the regional and national levels. Lessons learned can provide valuable knowledge to inform the next generation environmental policy makers in developing effective water resources management systems in an age of increased water scarcity.

In Chapter 2 I present a comprehensive presentation and analysis of the state of the art in water resource management. Chapter 3 describes the Oasis of Figuig and its evolution throughout history. Chapter 4 addresses the issue of governance and the role it plays in water resource management. In Chapter 5 I focus on the economic factors that affect water resource management. Chapter 6 contains a conclusion of the research along with insights and recommendations for effective water resource management.