Intercultural communication, simulation games, and computer game technology
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- INTRODUCTION
- Simulation Games and Intercultural Learning
- Computer Game Design
- The Impact of Computer Game Technology on Simulation Game Design
- CONCLUSION
- References
| INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION, SIMULATION GAMES, AND COMPUTER GAME TECHNOLOGY
ELAINE M. RAYBOURN Department of Communication & Journalism, University of New Mexico Copyright © 1997. All rights reserved by the author. Excerpts from the following paper were presented by Elaine M. Raybourn for the panel "Advanced Simulation Game Design" at the 1997 Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning (ABSEL) Conference held in New Orleans, Louisiana. 
INTRODUCTIONPlay is an underrated component of the cultural learning and socialization process. Nevertheless it is through play that children are first made aware of the appropriate behaviors, norms, and rules of a culture. As adults, the learning process continues though structured social activities, or rule-governed communication behaviors. According to Eric Berne (1964), author of Games People Play, human relationships and communication are comprised of game-playing behaviors such as following or violating cultural scripts and rules. It may be said that playing games either for fun, relational satisfaction, or social learning is a natural human phenomenon. Games have long provided a structured environment for quickly learning complex behaviors. Most games used in a professional context fall into the following categories: teaching, training, operations, research, therapy, and entertainment (Shubik, 1975; 1989). Among the fields that most use games for teaching and training are management science, economics, psychology, sociology, political science, military science, and education. Games used to replicate and teach behavioral models and processes that employ the use of a human in a particular role, actual or simulated, are called simulation games (Shubik, 1975). The simulation game experience is a model of reality in which the potential exists for players to test boundaries and discover facets of themselves they never knew before. The better the game design, the better players are able to connect simulated actions and decisions to their everyday experiences in order to build a knowledge base of behavioral skills. According to Sisk (1995, p. 81), "simulation games provide interactive opportunities to practice new behaviors and experiment with new attitudes and points of view in a nonthreatening, nonjudgemental environment." In fact, designing simulation games provides the "Game Master," or designer, an opportunity to practice new behaviors and experiment with skills, attitudes, behavioral models, and theoretical perspectives as well. Martin Shubik (1989, p. 189) asserted that "the act of game construction and playing forces us to specify fully scenarios and processes; it challenges imagination and logic. It forces us to pay attention to completeness and consistency, but above all to process and playability." It might be said that simulation game design is a game for many designers, and hence an opportunity to become engaged in creative, imaginative, highly focused play.
Simulation Games and Intercultural LearningSimulation games are often used in organizations and education for training and teaching intercultural communication principles and skills. The intensity of simulation games and their seemingly harmless nature (after all, it's a game, isn't it?) help adults explore skills, methods, and concepts rapidly within a fun, nonthreatening, risk-free environment composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning experiences. Players are able to assume roles that while engaged in play seamlessly and effortlessly become a part of them, allowing unmediated learning to take place. Players' notions of personal boundaries, time, space, and self are suspended in the simulated environment, as they agree to "play within the rules" and trust the learning process. Values, definitions, social behaviors, time, space, and communication outcomes are manipulated by the Game Master, in this case the trainer, in order to reduce the "interval between learning and applying; they [players] tie the present, the future, and their skills, values, and knowledge together to make the ongoing situation relevant and useful" (Sisk, 1995, p. 88). Later when play has concluded players may discard their roles and behaviors, egos unscathed, that is, they retain no responsibility for their actions in the simulation and walk away with a new set of tools to use the next time they encounter a similar situation in "real" life. Learning in simulation games is simultaneous and multilevel. Players learn from (1) contextual information embedded in the dynamics of the game, (2) the organic process generated by the simulation game, and (3) through the risks, benefits, costs, outcomes, and rewards of alternative strategies that result from decision making (Sisk, 1995). Simulation games provide the player the unique opportunity to operate on these levels simultaneously, demonstrating that decision making and applying newly learned tools in cultural and organizational contexts is a complex, multilevel process. Successful simulation game designs incorporate variations of four necessary components: (1) adequate amount of time for play and debriefing, (2) clear instructions and any props or artifacts that are necessary for game play, (3) appropriate number of players (usually more than a small group with the exception of computer-generated simulation games), and (4) a skilled facilitator to lead the game's debriefing session, in which consequences, strategies, and misperceptions are discussed in detail (Sisk, 1995). The debriefing is the most vital element of successful game design. During the debriefing, facilitators guide players in analyzing the learning outcomes of the game, and extending what was learned to "real" situations. Facilitators also use the debriefing as an opportunity to ease players out of their game roles and back to "reality" (Sisk, 1995). There are several benefits to using simulation games to facilitate intercultural learning. First, players learn critical thinking skills that better prepare them to rationally plan future strategies as well as spontaneously intuit the consequences of their decisions. Second, players also learn to apply the theories and models explored in the simulated situation to real-world situations. The simulation gaming process also provides players an opportunity to practice real-world behaviors associated with competition, empathy, and communication in a simulated reality (Sisk, 1995). Third, perhaps one of the most valuable benefits for social scientists and interculturalists is that a simulated reality is a safer arena for many people to confront cultural differences. Particularly when addressing some cross-cultural issues of potential controversy, simulation games provide a safe place to explore dangerous questions (Pedersen, 1995).
Computer Game DesignAlthough computer games were made possible as early as 1950 by the advent of microcomputers, the first computer game was created 12 years later through a collaborative effort by original undergraduate "hackers" from MIT's Tech Model Railroad Club (Friedman, 1995). Spacewar was developed in 1962, and served as the prototype for the arcade game Asteroids. The first role-playing computer game, Adventure, was developed at Stanford during the 1960s.The 1970s marked the beginning of the diffusion of arcade games, home video games, and personal computers--but many believed that the video gaming phenomenon led by Atari and popularity of games such as Pong would not last (Ferrell, 1991). By 1984, the gaming industry was at an all time low and many companies were forced into bankruptcy. However, it didn't last long. By 1987 Nintendo picked up where Atari left off, and by 1990 had revived the video game market. Annual industry sales figures leaped from a 1985 figure of $100 million to a 1990 figure of $4 billion (Funk, 1993). Today Nintendo wards off competition from Sega, and others. Some authors argue that the most interesting and exciting games have been developed for the personal computer market. According to Computer Gaming World, well over 4000 published games comprise seven genres: action/arcade, adventure, role-playing adventure, simulation, sports, strategy, and war (Friedman, 1995). Within these categories, however, there is considerable overlap. For example, the empire-building game Civilization is both a simulation and war game. Although not intended for education, several computer games designed for entertainment purposes also lend themselves well to an educational context. Computer adventure games such as Balance of Power, SimCity, and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? are often used in computer-assisted language learning (Meskill, 1990; Taylor, 1990). These days computer game design is a complex process involving programmers, artists, musicians, writers, and producers (Netsel, 1990; Friedman, 1995). Although the potential exists for computer game technology to rival that of the film industry, designers would be remiss to liken the interactivity of computer gaming to experiencing a good film. Designers such as Brenda Laurel and Hal Barwood contend that computer games are actually more like plays, not movies (Card, 1991; Laurel, 1993). Part of the reason for this is that scenes in computer games are often viewed from single angles at a time and from the same distance. Some techniques used in film are just not as successfully executed in computer games. From a programming perspective, for example, it isn't cost effective to design nuances such as genuine facial expressions that are appreciated primarily in close-ups on film (Card, 1991). Additionally, in a play, the audience is aware of actors as they leave or enter the stage area. Audience members know that actors may leave the stage area, or range of visibility, but they also know that they still exist. Although the actors may be engaged in activities off stage, they are not out of the context of the plot. A computer game is similar in that the player knows that while he or she is battling evil aliens on screen, there is a entire army off screen plotting against him or her. In other words, the action of the game takes place on and off the screen (Laurel, 1993). The notion of on/off screen activity that occurs within the context of the simulated game environment is key to understanding how designers are able to engage players in ways that a movie never could. It is not uncommon for computer gamers to spend hours upon hours sitting in front of their computers, either alone or in groups, engaged in a game. Myers (1990) conducted a study on game players' experience of play using Q-sort methodology. He constructed four criteria: challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and interactivity that were expressed in 48 positive and negative statements. Data were collected from video game players and personal computer game players. The results indicated that the most preferred characteristic of favorite games is challenge, while the preferred characteristic of video games is ease of play, and that of home computer games is interaction. In all cases, these findings support the key ingredients of successful game design identified by top computer game designers: challenge, fun, simplicity, plot, and of course, state of the art technology.
The Impact of Computer Game Technology on Simulation Game DesignTechnological innovations in hardware and software design are directing the future of computer-based simulation games. Computer game designers have reinvented contemporary notions of what makes a successful interface. Interactive design tools including hypertext/ hypermedia, graphical user interface (GUI) animation and data visualization, and artificial intelligence will have a profound affect on simulation design and could potentially set the standard for computerized simulations (Garson, 1994). New technologies now provide the tools to extend the goals and outcomes of simulation games past a conventional perspective. For example, Shubik (1989) predicted that by 2009 business simulation games would evolve into networked organizational learning devices that could simulate models of the corporations themselves. Additionally, simulation game designers must now create games for a group of people who have grown up playing video and computer games and therefore expect rather sophisticated notions of play. Shubik (1989) noted that the corporate executives of 2009 will have "been raised" on computer games and state of the art simulations. Multimedia games and simulations available on CD-ROM today not only feature 3-D animation and stereo sound, but also the ability to play with other players via modem, or network, or internet. These multi-player game designs have revolutionized the concept of "turn taking" with realtime action, and capitalized on the "computer's best characteristics: interaction, animation, and dynamic processes" (Bunten, 1989, p. 34). Ellington (1994) indicated that notwithstanding the obvious impact of microcomputer hardware and software on simulation game design, new dimensions such as virtual reality are being introduced into the realm of simulation gaming. Although the idea "virtual reality" has become quite popular, telepresence is probably a more accurate definition for the sense of being in another world. Telepresence refers to a medium or technology that creates the feeling of physically being in another place or time, real or imagined (Laurel, 1991). To explore telepresence today one need only to visit arcade-style environments for adults. For example, Virtua-Cafe on South Miami Beach, Florida offered customers the opportunity to play conventional games (arcade games and billiards) as well as experience 3D audio and video in flight simulators, virtual boxing, and alien combat environments. Players dive "into a strange new sea, at the confluence of information, sensation, and communication" (Laurel, 1991). Some would argue that it is not how close an environment comes to simulating reality, but how individuals interact with it that makes it a virtual reality. For instance, Heim (1993) asserted that icons on computer desktops (and the desktop itself) are virtual realities. The familiar trash can icon is an example of a virtual object whose function is as real as any real-world trash can, especially if one erroneously deletes a file by "throwing it in the trash." Although the icon is not a real-world trash can and individuals would not speak of it as such, it represents properties of a real-world trash can that exist in the context of one's engagement with the interface. However, this sense of being physically (mind and body) in another dimension of reality may not always occur when playing an interactive computer game or using a spreadsheet, as players usually do not experience a sensory immersion in a virtual environment where they can walk, fly, or manipulate virtual objects--yet. When asked about the future of computer games in an interview with Compute! "way back" in 1987, Roger Buoy, then president and CEO of Mindscape stated that "in a decade we'll be well on our way to projected environments, where you can be in a room and through holographic projection actually take part in an adventure" (Ferrell, 1987). Innovations in computer gaming are likely to set the standard or serve as an example of excellence for computerized simulation design. However, the infusion of computer gaming, MUDs (multi-user dimensions, that is, text-based fantasy role-playing virtual environments) and other computer-supported technologies such as e-mail, hypermedia, network communities, etc. into our everyday reality may have serious cultural and communication implications as well. In other words, the impact of computer gaming developments will have both direct and indirect effects. An indirect effect would be a shift in ideology, such as the way preferred channels of communication are perceived. For example, Sproull and Kiesler (1991) researched the effect of networks on communication and decision- making in organizations. The researchers compared how decisions were made in small groups using computer conferences, e-mail, and face-to-face discussions. Their findings indicate that using a network allowed participants to "talk more frankly and more equally" than face-to-face discussions (p. 757). Perhaps it is time to view computer-generated activity as a medium, and not a tool. In some cases, computer- mediated communication may be a preferred medium for human interaction.
CONCLUSIONFor those unfamiliar with the interactive world of computer gaming, learning the process of gaming may be a little frustrating. Computer games usually requires a "learning curve" while the player familiarizes himself or herself with the language of the new interface and the logic of the program. If the interface is too clumsy or difficult to use, or the logic too confusing to master, players simply abandon the game (Crawford, 1990). After all, play offers no extrinsic rewards, so players are motivated only when they are captivated, or engaged by the game. Learning to play in an interactive computer-generated environment is a "process of learning a distinct semiotic structure" (Friedman, 1995, p. 74). Once the player learns the particular gaming process, however, ennui may set in. Therefore it is the designers' responsibility to foster a player's state of "flow" or active engagement with an interface, which lies somewhere between boredom and anxiety. The task of simulation game designers is not unlike that of the computer game designer. Key elements to successful computer game design discussed above such as challenge, fun, simplicity, plot, and technology are also integral to effective simulation game design. Computer games can bolster intelligence and build confidence. Players feel a sense of mastery over an environment that may increase self-esteem (Millman, 1992). Simulation games must be equally compelling and engaging, contain an interesting plot or purpose for playing the game, promote simultaneous multi-level learning, and therefore may benefit from the design principles and use of new technologies. Perhaps the most useful lesson comes from HCI (Human-Computer Interaction). The lesson for simulation game designers is that every new medium has its merits and its flaws. The problem is when the new medium is judged or defined by the criteria of the existing preferred medium. In other words, there seems to be an "implicit assumption that there is a natural and perfect state--being there--and that our state is in some sense broken when we are not physically proximate. The goal then is to attempt to restore us, as best as possible, to the state of being there. In our view there are a number of problems with this approach" (Hollan & Stornetta, 1992). Memorable computer game design does not try to replicate reality, or our sense of being there, instead it quite successfully catapults players into a realm of imagination, fantasy, and virtual reality. This medium offers many exciting prospects to simulation game designers of the 21st century--that is, those interested in moving simulation gaming beyond being there.
Note: specific design principles are outlined in "Computer Game Design: New Directions for Intercultural Simulation Game Designers." in Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Exercises, vol. 24, 1997. A Link to this article is provided below.
Elaine M. Raybourn University of New Mexico Department of Communication & Journalism Communication & Journalism Building, Room 235 West Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131 raybourn@cs.unm.edu
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