Kenyatta university institute of open learning

Download 1.01 Mb.

Page	2/5
Date	31.07.2017
Size	1.01 Mb.
	#25836

1 2 3 4 5

7.1 Phonation type

The phonation types are as a result of the different states of the glottis. Phonation has to

do with the generation of acoustic energy at the larynx by the action of the vocal folds.

The state of the glottis determines the presence or lack of vibration that accompanies a

human speech sound.

7.2 The four states of the glottis

a) Voiced state

This phonation state is achieved with a narrowed glottis so that the air stream causes the

vocal cords to vibrate. The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are known as

voiced sounds.

Example

/b/ - voiced bilabial plosive

/d/ - voiced alveolar plosive

/z/ - voiced alveolar fricative

/i/ - Vowels

b) Voiceless state

This phonation state is achieved with an open glottis so that the airstream flows out with

no vibration of the vocal cords. The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are

known as voiceless sounds.

Example

/p/ - voiceless bilabial plosive

/t/ - voiceless alveolar plosive

/s/ -voiceless alveolar fricative

c) Whisper state

This phonation state is achieved with a considerably narrowed glottis so that the

airstream flows out with a strong hushing noise. To practice, fill your lungs and then

softly say ‘ee’. What you have articulated is known as the ‘whispered mid-low front

vowel’ - / /. The whispered breath takes longer to flow out than the one utilized for a

voiceless state.

Activity

Alternately say the sounds /e/ and /h/

If you say the sounds correctly, you will perceive the difference between the two flow

outs of the airstream mechanism. That is the difference between the voiceless and

whisper phonation states.

d) Creaky state

This phonation state is achieved with the glottis completely closed along most of its

length except near the front-end opening. This state of the glottis allows air to escape in a

low frequency through a small vibrating segment near the front end of the glottis. Each

explosive burst of air is heard distinctly.

Activity

Say /a/ from a low to a very low pitch.

If you say it correctly at some point the vibration is so low that you can perceive the

individual explosives bursts of air. These individual bursts of air are known as creaks.

The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are voiced.

23

Lecture 8

Classification according to place of articulation

8.1 The places of articulation

The place of articulation of a human speech sound is according to the distribution of

speech organs along the vocal tract, from the larynx to the lips. These speech organs

shape the airflow audibly in different ways.

8.2

Major articulatory areas and articulations

The major articulatory areas are defined in terms of the vocal tract. The vocal tract

specifies all the areas in which it is possible to articulate human speech sounds. The tract

is divided into three major areas or cavities

- nasal cavity/ area

- oral

- pharyngeal – laryngeal

Diagram 1

: The vocal tra

ct

8.2.1 he nasal area/ cavity

T

This c vity starts at the nostril

a s, goes through the nasal passage and up to a lowered

velum (Cf. Diagram 1). The lowered velum closes off the oral passage of air. All the

sounds articulated with a lowered velum are called nasals.

N

asals are articulated with modification of the airstream by the articulating organs in the

mouth. There are no articulating organs in the nasal passage. Therefore, no stricture type

takes place in the nasal cavity itself. However, due to the lowering of the velum, the

higher percentage of air flows out through the nasal cavity.

N

ote

Constr

iction of air in the nostril is not known to be exploited in any language for the

articulation of human speech sounds.

8

.2.2 The oral cavity or area

The o al cavity starts at the lip

r s, through the mouth and up to a raised velum (Cf.

Diagram 1). All the sounds are produced with a raised velum that blocks the flow of air

through the nasal cavity. So all air flows out through the oral cavity.

T

he oral cavity is used for the majority of the human speech sounds. Articulations are

through the juxtaposition of lower articulators and the upper articulators.

The lower articulators are also known as the active articulators. They in

clude the lower

lip, the lower teeth and the tongue.

The upper articulators are known as the passive articulators. They include the upper lip,

upper teeth and roof of the mouth.

8.2.3 The Pharyngeo-laryngeal cavity

There are two sub-division here.

a) The pharyngeal articulations are formed in the pharynx. The pharyngeal wall acts as

the articulator. Because they cannot form a complete closure, sounds formed are

fricative. There are only two pharyngeal sounds. They are formed with a gag-reflex i.e.

chocking reflex e.g. (h) which utilized the muscles of the diaphragm. It is produced with

what is called induced contraction of the pharynx. {G} Voiced {h} voiceless.

b) The glottis articulations are formed in the laryngeal area through the constriction of

the vocal chords e.g. glottal stop and voiceless fricative. In the formation of glottal stops,

the epiglottis forms a complete closure with the larynx. In articulating fricatives, the

epiglottis forms a close approximation closure e.g. stop{?}, fricative {h} – voiceless and

{h} – voiced. Sounds formed in the larynx are glottal and those formed in the pharynx

are called pharyngeal. The pharyngeo-laryngeal area gives only five speech sounds.

Lecture 9

Analysis of articulations in the oral cavity

9.1 Labial articulations

9.1.1 Bilabial

The two lips are involved e.g. /p, b/

9.1.2. Labio dental

The lower lip and the upper teeth are involved e.g. / f, v/

9.2 Dent-alveolar articulations

9.2.1 Dental

/ð, / articulated by the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back of the upper front

teeth.

9.2.2 Alveolar

The tip/ blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. E.g. /t, d/

Tip/ apex – apico

Blade – lamino

9.2.3 Post alveolar

e.g. / , z/

9.3 Retroflex and palatal articulations

Retroflex sounds are articulated with the sub-lamino, as the tongue slides back beyond

the post-alveolar sub-zone.

It enters the pre-palatal zone.

It is almost pointing up

The under blade or sublamina makes contact with the palatal arch.

Since the tip/ apex of the tongue is virtually curled back the sound are called retroflex e.g.

/t, d/.

The palatal sounds are articulated with the back (antero-dorso) part of the tongue in

juxtaposition with the palatal sub-zone.

Example

/ / - nyumba (house) in Kiswahili

9.4 Velar and uvular articulations

Articulated with the back of the tongue (postero – dorso) against the soft palate. Velar,

for example, /k, g/ and uvular, for example, /q, /

Illustration

To articulate /q/ make a stricture for /k/ then let the tongue slip slightly further back and

down.

Lecture 10

Analysis of articulations in the pharyngeo – laryngeal cavity

10.1 The pharyngeal articulations

Pharyngeo – the articulations in the pharynx are called the pharengeal sounds. The

pharynx is the cavity behind the mouth, from the back of the nose down to the larynx.

The pharyngeal sounds can be – oropharynx: produced right behind the mouth or

laryngopharynx, produced in the lower part of the pharynx, immediately above the

larynx. The pharyngeal walls act as articulators though they cannot form a complete

closure stricture.

- Fricatives /h / (occur in Arabic, Somali, Hebrew)

The sounds are articulated with a gag reflex (as if choking) that includes mild contraction

of the pharynx.

10.2 The laryngeal articulations

Glottal articulations are found in the laryngeal area. They are articulated through the

constriction of the vocal cords.

The epiglottis can fold over the larynx to form a complete closure or it can constrict the

vocal cords to form a close approximation. If it is a complete closure the sound produced

is the glottal stop/? /.

If it is close approximation the sounds produced are the two fricatives. / h and /

Note

Nasal cavity: nasal sounds

Oral cavity: labials, dent alveolar, retroflex and palatal and velar and uvular sound.

Pharyngeo – laryngeal: pharyngeal and glottal sounds.

30

Lecture 11

Classification according to manner of articulation

11.1 Manner of articulation

The manner of articulation is determined by the vocal organs. It is specified according to

the degree of stricture i.e. – the degree to which the vocal organs or articulators impede

the airflow.

11.2 Stricture types

Each stricture type generates a sound of specific type and quality. It is the stricture type/

manner of articulation that finally shapes the air stream into specific sounds by placing

the articulating organs in different positions.

The vocal tract is considered a four dimensional tube that runs from the larynx through

the mouth to the lips and through the nasal cavity to the nostrils. This is the tract that

contains the vocal organs and the four dimensions indicate – space in relation to the

organs and time.

11.2.1 The four dimensions

1. Vertical dimension.

Represented by the degree of closeness between the articulatory

organs. In most articulations the active articulator approaches the passive one in a

vertical direction.

2. Transverse dimension

The side-to-side dimension that specifies the location of the oral air path, which can be

a) Median: through the centre of the mouth as in - / / /ð/

b) Lateral: through or along one or both sides of the mouth as in / /

3. Longitudinal dimension

This represents the location of the articulation at any of the points in the vocal tract from

the lips back and down to the larynx. E.g. the difference between / p, t, k, q, / is

longitudinal – all have the same manner of articulation but different locations of

articulation.

4. Time dimension

This dimension specifies whether an articulation is one of

a momentary gesture

a maintainable posture

11.2.2. Maintainable stricture types

There are three degrees of stricture in the production of sounds.

1. Complete closure

In this stricture, the articulators seal off the flow of air completely. The articulators are

then drawn apart suddenly. When drawn to gather, the air behind the articulators builds

up in pressure and the sudden parting of the articulators makes the air escape with ‘a

popping noise’ or plosion. The sounds thus produced are known as plosives due to the

noisy release. They are also known as stops because of the complete stoppage of the

airflow by the articulating organs.

- Stops – the complete closure. E.g. / p b t d t d c f k g q g/

2. Close approximation

The articulators come close to one another but they do not seal off the air escape. The

passage left for the air to escape is however so narrow that air flowing through cause

turbulence. The sounds produced have an audible friction whether they are voiced or

voiceless.

fricatives e.g. /Fß f v h h/

3. Open approximation

The articulators are wider apart than in the close approximation stricture. Airflows out

with hardly any turbulence e.g. in / j /

/o u i/ vowels

4. The trill

This involves an alteration between the complete closure and the open approximation.

The active articulator repeatedly hits against the passive articulator because of the

passage of the powerful air stream used in the articulation of a trill e.g. in /B r R /

Conclusion: all these stricture types: the stop, fricative, approximant and trill are

maintainable articulations. The articulation posture can be held in place for some time.

However some have a longer maintainable stricture than others.

Approximants>fricatives>trills>stops.

11.2.3. Momentary stricture types

In these articulations there is very brief/ momentary contact between the articulators.

1. Tap or flap

The active articulator momentarily makes contact with the passive articulator and then

/

withdraws – taps or flaps against it e.g. in /

2. Approximant (Semi vowel)

The semi vowel unlike all other sounds has just two phases of the articulation process.

Approach and release

If the hold phase is included, the semi- vowel turns into a vowel

e.g. /w/ - very short/u/

/j/ - very short /i/

Lecture 12

Analyses and classification of Vowels

12.1 Articulation of vowels

Vowels are articulated with a stricture of open approximation they are normally voiced

(voiced or creaky state). They are distinguished in terms of.

12.1.2 The lip position

This is the most obvious and most easily controlled feature of the vowels.

round – [u] fully rounded

Spread – [i] fully spread.

12.1.2 Vertical tongue position

The vertical tongue position is also known as the tongue height. This position gives the

distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The height

determines the size of the resonance chamber.

12.1.3 Horizontal tongue position

This gives the relative advancement or retraction of the body of the tongue – front,

central and back.

12.2 Cardinal vowels

A set of universal reference vowel sounds based on

a) vowel limit of the tongue height or vertical dimension and horizontal dimension e.g. /i/

is a dorso – palatal approximation. If the tongue is further tensed up and its pushed closer

to the hard palate audible turbulence can be heard, thus we produce the dorso palatal

approximant / j/ or fricative /j/

b)

Vowel closeness

This limits the upward and backward direction/ boundary. Movement beyond the

resonance chamber yields consonantal sounds.

Note

Speech comprises sounds or sequences of sounds. The flow of articulatory movement is

considered a series of segments. This is what distinguishes speech from mere noise.

The description of language in terms of units is – traditional

Convenient – it gives the discrete and finite hints that language is dependent on.

The segment can be – perceived

- articulated

Each sound segment can be identified as a ‘stable state of the articulatory

mechanism’(Clark and Yallop 1990 pp 95) the stable state includes all the articualtory

settings that best characterize the sound in question and it is referred to as a TARGET.

Lecture 13

Co-articulations

13. 1 Articulations and the number of articulating organs

Most articulations are single i.e. have only two articulating organs: one passive and the

other active. We also have co-articulations namely. The sounds discussed so far have a

single articulation – one active articulator and one passive articulator

13.2 Co-articulations

It is possible for sounds to be articulated at two different places. This is called co-

articulation. There are two types of co-articulation.

13.2.1 Co-ordinate or double co-articulation

These are two simultaneous articulations resulting in one sound segment. The two are

said to be of the same rank or degree of stricture i.e. if the first is open approximation, the

second also is e.g. in articulating /w/, there is the approximation and rounding of the lips.

So the sound is said to be bilabial (rounding of lips). At the same time, the back of the

tongue is raised towards the velum for an open approximation. So the sound is dorso-

velar. The two postures take place at the same time. Vocalic sounds have a double

articulation.

13.2.2 Secondary co-articulation

The two simultaneous articulations are of different ranks. One articulation is primary and

the other is secondary. The articulations are used to form the adjective that names the

sound. The secondary articulation is mostly of an open approximation e.g. /t/ can have

the secondary articulation and it is said to be labialized. The sound is described

phonetically in square brackets [t

] and the secondary articulation indicated with a

w

diacritic. Other secondary articulations are nasalization, pharyngealization, velarization,

palatalization, rhotacical, retroflexion etc.

13.3 Homorganic sound sequences

These are successive occurrences of two similar or different articulations. The two make

up one sound unit, transcribed with one phonetic/ phonemic symbol. The orthography

however, two graphemes (letters) are used.

13.3.1 Geminates

This refers to a sequence of two identical or almost identical consonants. The two

consonants are clearly pronounced within one and the same morpheme

E.g. [ll] in Allah – God in Arabic

[tt] in notte – night in Italian

[nn] in nnadi- name in Yoruba

13.3.2 Affricates

An affricate is a stop that is released into a homographic fricative within one and the

same morpheme. E.g. t - lamino – post alveolar stop that is released into a post alveolar

Fricative.

ts – Apico alveolar stop that is released into an alveolar fricative.

13.3.3 Lateral fricatives

The stop is released into a homorganic lateral fricative e.g. t – alveolar stop /t/ released

into the lateral fricative /l/

13.3.4 Prenasalised stop

A stop that is preceded by a homorganic nasal e.g. m

b n

d m

p n t usually found in

African languages.

Lecture 14

Segmental and parametric analysis

14.1 Introduction

Parametric forms and phonological forms have much in common. In generative

phonology the phonetic form is considered the output of the input of phonological forms.

E.g. /e/ the phonetic form of this sound is dependent / determined by the phonological

context. E.g. in bell it is [e] or [e], in pen it is [e~](nasalized). There is therefore a

distinction between two things – segments, processes.

14.2 Segmental analysis

Segments are the unique/ single sounds produced during an articulation. The articulation

can be .

a) a single articulation

b) a co-articulation double, secondary.

c) Homorganic articulation.

Segmental analysis deals with the analysis of the speech sounds in terms of segments. It

deals with the

a) Articulation of the segments

- the dimensions involved

i. the air stream

ii. the vocal tract area

iii. the vocal organs

b) the type of articulation

- single articulation

- co-articulation

- homorganic articulation

basically, therefore, segmental analysis describes the sound segments without necessarily

looking at their - function in specific language. This analysis is essential because it

enables linguists to isolate individual sounds for detailed study. Speech is more or less a

continuous flow of energy that has peaks and troughs of the energy movement. This flow

can be converted into a series of separate segments that can be – perceived or articulated.

The pre-supposition is that it is possible to

a) tell where each segment begins and ends

b) there are indeed unique segments

I.e. the consonants and vowels of various kinds.

In segmental analysis any sound can be identified as a ‘stable state of the articulatory

mechanism’(Clark yallop 1990:95). The stable state includes all the – articulatory settings

that best characterize the sound in question.

The stable state is referred to as the TARGET. Vowels and fricatives can be produced in

isolation and they can be prolonged indefinitely e.g. /i/, /e/ /u/, /f/ /s/ /

/

For these sounds it is possible to speak of a genuinely stable state. Flaps/ taps, trills and

stops are dynamic or transient in their articulation. These sounds are thus identified only

by motional targets that relate to characteristic articulatory properties. The concept of

target is important in phonetics as it is used to justify segments. The concept provides a

useful point of reference of how speech sounds are actually articulated by speakers. In

speech however, these sounds are modified variously. The concept, therefore, should be

seen to point beyond itself to assumptions about the organization of speech.

Download 1.01 Mb.

Share with your friends:

1 2 3 4 5