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- Algae biofuels risk harmful toxins and upsetting fragile ecosystems
- Algae biofuel development leads to ecosystem destruction – eutrophication and kills biodiversity
- Algae biofuels hurt the environment—releases more GHG emissions threatens water resources
invasive species/envt turnAlgae biofuel development leads to invasive HAB species – damage human health and create marine dead zonesChimera et al. 10 (Charles G Chimera, Christopher E Buddenhagen & Patti M Clifford, “Biofuels: the risks and dangers of introducing invasive species”, Biofuels 1:5, 2010, http://www.future-science.com/doi/abs/10.4155/bfs.10.47) The R&D of microalgal-based biofuels has seen a resurgence of interest in the past few years [66,67]. Significant funding and collaborative partnerships are promoting algal-based biofuels as an important component of a sustainable energy future [68 ,691 . The potential benefits of microalgae include its high per-acre productivity, ability to thrive in a variety of water sources, non-arable land use, mitigation of GHGS, and production of biofuels and other valuable coproducts [70]. However, microalgae introduced into new environments also have the potential to become invasive species. As stated by Phalan, "the features which make them attractive biofuel crops wide environmental tolerance, rapid growth, ease of establishment, low water demand, ability to resprout when harvested are precisely those traits which predispose species to become alien invasives" [71]. l There are an estimated 1-10 million algae species on Earth, with the majority being microalgae [72]. Microalgae are photosynthetic prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms with fast growth rates [73]. They inhabit fresh, brackish and marine waters around the world [74] and are ecologically important, accounting for 50% of CO2 fixation [75]. Microalgae that are native or introduced to an area and become invasive are often referred to as harmful algal blooms (HABs). HABs are species of phytoplankton that cause negative effects on human health (through the production of toxins), impact living marine sources (wild and cultivated fish), impact tourism and recreation of coastal waters (through "˜red tides'); and damage marine ecosystems by creating anoxic areas that kill marine life. There are approximately 80 toxic and 200 noxious microalgal species involved in HABs out of a total of 4000 described marine planktonic microalgae [76]. Research indicates that the rise in HABs shows the signs of a global epidemic of HABS. Whether this recognition is the result of an increase of scientific awareness of toxic algal species, utilization of coastal waters for aquaculture, cultural eutrophication of waters, unusual climatalogical conditions or the transport of dinoflagellates by ships ballast water or shellfish stock is unclear [77-801. The invasion patterns of microalgae are dependent on human vectors and subsequent adaptation ofthe algae to their new environment. In the North Sea ofthe Atlantic Ocean, a shift in the successional pattern of flagellate and dinoflagellate species has been attributed to human-induced climate and ocean salinity changes. HABs have increased and resulted in a proportional change in the community composition of diatoms and dinoflagellates. Continued climatic change could result in a successional change in the phytoplankton of the area [81]. Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment of coastal areas has also been linked to HAB events around the world [82]. Microalgal genera or species proposed for biofuel production that have had HAB incidents include Amphom, Mmschia, Pseudo-nitzsc/Jia and Prymnesium parvum. It has been suggested that locating algal biofuel production plants close to seawater will remove the need for fresh water resources and increase their sustainability [83]. However there is little discussion on the ecological impacts resulting from an accidental introduction of a microalgal biofuel species into the surrounding environment. Microscopic species can easily be moved from one site to another unintentionally; for example, rock snot (Didymosphenia geminata) is a one-celled diatom that can spread in a drop of water, on clothing, pets or other gear. It is an emerging global invasive species, particularly in parts ofthe USA and New Zealand [84]. In invaded habitats, D. geminata blooms can affect trophic levels in fresh water systems, impacting ecosystem structure and function [85] _ The authors suggest that because D. geminata is microscopic, its invasion patterns may have more in common with global diseases than with higher taxonomic organism invaders. While there is a rush to develop an algal-based biofuel industry, the development of risk assessment procedures and risk mitigation measures have not kept pace. There is a lack of information on what the negative effects could be to an ecosystem by introducing a non-native, native or GM algal species. While there are numerous risk assessment procedures developed for I-IABs [86], risk assessment for I-IAB species is complicated due to algal species diversity and the degree of taxonomic expertise that is required to identify the species in question. Research efforts are needed to develop tools for taxonomic classification and the identification of population dynamics of I-IAB species to improve monitoring and risk assessment efforts, and to develop management and mitigation procedures that limit the impacts of I-IABs to the environment [76]. Algae biofuels risk harmful toxins and upsetting fragile ecosystemsOSU 12 (Ohio State University, “Genetically engineered algae for biofuel pose potential risks”, Science Daily, 8/20/12, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120820121044.htm) Algae are high on the genetic engineering agenda as a potential source for biofuel, and they should be subjected to independent studies of any environmental risks that could be linked to cultivating algae for this purpose, two prominent researchers say. Writing in the August 2012 issue of the journal BioScience, the researchers argue that ecology experts should be among scientists given independent authority and adequate funding to explore any potential unintended consequences of this technological pursuit. A critical baseline concern is whether genetically engineered algae would be able to survive in the wild, said Allison Snow, professor of evolution, ecology and organismal biology at Ohio State University and lead author of the paper. "If they're grown in big, open ponds, which is mainly what were talking about, could the newer types of microalgae get out into nature and mingle? We need to know if they can survive and whether they can hybridize or evolve to become more prolific when they get out of a controlled environment," Snow said. "If they can survive, we also need to know whether some types of genetically engineered blue-green algae, for example, could produce toxins or harmful algal blooms -- or both," Snow noted. And because algae are so small and could be dispersed by rough weather or wildlife activity, biologists worry that any transgenes they contain to enhance their growth and strength could be transferred to other species in a way that could upset a fragile ecosystem. "The applications are new and the organisms are less well-known. They range from being very tame 'lab rats' that won't survive in nature to wild organisms that can presumably cross with each other unless some measures are taken to prevent crossing. It's a very new situation," Snow said. Snow co-authored the article with aquatic ecologist Val Smith, a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Kansas. Snow has a history in this area of research. She led a study in 2002 that was the first to show that a gene artificially inserted into crop plants to fend off pests could migrate to weeds in a natural environment and make the weeds stronger. She also has served on national panels that monitor and make recommendations about the release of genetically engineered species into the environment. There are a lot of unknowns about this area of research and development in microalgae, and that's largely because algae don't have the breeding history that, say, corn and soybeans have, Snow said. In addition, few details are publicly available because much of this information remains confidential as businesses compete to be the first to commercialize their genetically altered algae. Algae biofuel development leads to ecosystem destruction – eutrophication and kills biodiversityZhu and Ketola 12 (Liandong and Tarja, “Microalgae production as a biofuel feedstock: risks and challenges”, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 19:3, June 2012, http://www.academia.edu/3459816/Microalgae_production_as_a_biofuel_feedstock_risks_and_challenges) The term biodiversity is used to refer to the richness of the life forms and their associations in a biome (Suneetha2010). In a balanced system, weather, predators, diseases and availability of food sources all affect species presence and population size (Benton 2001). Water contamination and the presence of alien invasive species will threaten the development and stability of biodiversity in any system. A microalgae culture facility, whether a closed or open system, can be established in a water-rich delta, a desert or in the open sea. In an open system, the use of large quanti-ties of fertiliser for microalgae cultivation can lead to direct and indirect releases of reactive N species into the environ-ment. Moreover, in microalgae culture systems chemicals and disinfectants are widely used for pest prevention water treatment, and cleaning and disinfection of equip-ment. Moreover, during biomass harvest, flocculants are also essential. As a result, the downstream discharge of residual chemical nutrients can lead to net increases in nutrient levels in the receiving water body. Although fur-ther environmental effects have not yet been fully known assessed, eutrophication resulting from nutrient imbalance in water will give rise to toxic algal blooms and fish kills in the natural environment (Glibert et al. 2005; Estradaet al. 2009).There are over 100,000 microalgal species, and only a handful have been well studied and adopted for widespread cultivation in the aquaculture and food industry. Creating pure microalgae culture is difficult, and involves the limi-tation or exclusion of natural and native species. Any exotic or potentially invasive microalgae species from system wastewater that are released into the natural environment will threaten the integrity of local and regional ecosys-tems, since downstream water may contain non-harvested microalgal cells. The movement or drift of microalgae carries risks for wild species, and may result in biolog-ical invasions. Through species competition, large-scale microalgal reproduction will threaten the safety of native species, and could even cause a biological disaster – species extinction (Fritts and Rodda 1998) Algae biofuels hurt the environment—releases more GHG emissions & threatens water resourcesRampton & Zabarenko, 2012 (Roberta Rampton and Deborah Zabarenko- environmental correspondents for Reuters, “Algae biofuel not sustainable now-U.S. research council”, Reuters, 10/24/2014, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/10/24/us-usa-biofuels-algae-idUKBRE89N1Q820121024) It said a main reason to use alternative fuels for transportation is to cut climate-warming greenhouse gas emissions created by burning fossil fuel. But estimates of greenhouse emissions from algal biofuels cover a wide range, with some suggesting that over their life cycle, the fuels release more climate-warming gas than petroleum, it said. The product now made in small quantities by Sapphire uses algae, sunlight and carbon dioxide as feedstocks to make fuel that is not dependent on food crops or farmland. The company calls it "green crude." Tim Zenk, a Sapphire vice president, said the company has worked for five years on the sustainability issues examined in the report. "The NRC has acknowledged something that the industry has known about in its infancy and began to address immediately," he said. He said Sapphire recycles water and uses land that is not suitable for agriculture at its New Mexico site, where it hopes to make 100 barrels of algal biofuel a day by 2014. The U.S. Navy used algal biofuel along with fuel made from cooking oil waste as part of its "Green Fleet" military exercises demonstration this summer, drawing fire from Republican lawmakers for its nearly $27 per gallon cost. The council study also said it was unclear whether producing that much biofuel from algae would actually lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions. The report shows the strategy is too risky, said Friends of the Earth, an environmental group. "Algae production poses a double-edged threat to our water resources, already strained by the drought," Michal Rosenoer, a biofuels campaigner with the group, said in a statement. 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