Canadian History Readings Understanding Direct and Indirect Causes
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- Reading One: The Battle of Vimy Ridge, 9-12 April 1917
Canadians on the SommeThe Battle of the Somme was not a one day affair, and the fighting continued, notably with a largely successful dawn attack by the British on July 14, through the summer months. In late August 1916, the "Byng Boys" [Canadian soldiers] moved from the muddy fields of Flanders to the Somme, where they took over a section of the front line west of the village of Courcelette. They ran into heavy fighting and suffered some 2,600 casualties before the full-scale offensive even got underway. In the major offensive which began at dawn on September 15 the Canadian Corps, on the extreme left of the attack, assaulted on a 2,200 yard sector west of the village of Courcelette. Advancing behind a creeping barrage (a tactic which had recently been introduced by the British, a consequence of adequately trained gunners, more and better guns and more reliable ammunition), the infantry was aided by the "new engine of war," the armoured tank. There were only a few of these and they were extremely unreliable and very vulnerable to artillery fire. However, at this early stage of the war their sheer presence often threw the enemy into confusion. The attack went well. By 8 a.m., the main objective, a defence bastion known as the Sugar Factory, was taken, and the Canadians pushed ahead to Courcelette. Numerous German counter-attacks were successfully repulsed and by the next day the position was consolidated. The enemy then brought up reinforcements, the fighting intensified, and gains became microscopic. In the weeks that followed the three Canadian divisions again and again attacked a series of German entrenchments. The final Canadian objective was that "ditch of evil memory," Regina Trench. It repeatedly defied capture, and when the first three divisions were relieved in the middle of October, Regina Trench was closer, but still not taken. When the newly arrived 4th Division took its place in the line it faced an almost unbelievable ordeal of knee-deep mud and violent, tenacious, enemy resistance. However, despite the almost impenetrable curtain of fire, on November 11 the Division captured Regina Trench—to find it reduced to a mere depression in the chalk. A week later, in the final attack of the Somme, the Canadians advanced to Desire Trench—a remarkable feat of courage and endurance. The 4th Division then rejoined the Corps opposite Vimy Ridge. There were no further advances that year. The autumn rains turned the battlefield into a bog and the offensive staggered to a halt. The line had been moved forward only six miles, though ground of itself was not particularly important except in terms of morale. The Allies had suffered some 650,000 casualties, and both sides had about 200,000 killed. The Germans refer to the Battle of the Somme as das Blutbad—the blood bath. One German officer described the Somme as "the muddy graveyard of the German Army," for the British it turned an army of eager, inexperienced recruits into a fighting machine on a par with those of France and Germany, but at a terrible cost in human life. The Somme had cost Canada 24,029 casualties, but it was here that the Canadians confirmed their reputation as hard-hitting shock troops. "The Canadians," wrote Lloyd George, "played a part of such distinction that thenceforward they were marked out as storm troops; for the remainder of the war they were brought along to head the assault in one great battle after another. Whenever the Germans found the Canadian Corps coming into the line they prepared for the worst." Aboriginals and the Canadian Military CBC News Online | June 21, 2006 Canada's aboriginal people have been fighting for this country on the front line of every major battle, going as far back as 1812. Then, the great warrior Tecumseh led the Six Nations in alliance with the Canadians and the British against the Americans in the War of 1812. But it was during the South African War in 1899, or the Boer War, that First Nations people enlisted as private soldiers in the military forces of Canada for the first time. They fought as Canadian soldiers, shoulder to shoulder with Britain and its allies. This tradition of military service continued into the 20th century. Although figures are hard to pinpoint, it is estimated that more than 7,000 First Nations people served in the First and Second World Wars and the Korean War and an unknown number of Inuit, Métis and other native peoples also participated. First World War In the First World War, Canadian aboriginal soldiers earned many medals and participated in every major land battle. The total number of native volunteers is unknown, as Inuit and Métis military volunteers weren't always counted in the records, but it is estimated more than 4,000 aboriginal people in Canada left their homes and their families to fight in the First World War. That figure accounts for one in three able-bodied First Nations men, according to Veterans Affairs Canada. The number carries even more weight, as native peoples were exempt from conscription at that time. During that war alone, at least 50 medals were awarded to aboriginal people in Canada for their bravery and heroism. The Department of Indian Affairs received scores of letters from the front commending native marksmen and scouts. Aboriginal Canadians contributed in monetary ways too, donating at least $44,000 toward war relief. Although many aboriginal people supported military involvement, it was not fully accepted. For example, some band councils refused to help the Allied war effort unless Great Britain acknowledged their bands as independent nations. That recognition was not granted. Still, the native community's enthusiasm for volunteering in the Canadian military was obvious across the nation. Some reserves were nearly depleted of young men. For example, during the First World War, about half of the eligible Mi'kmaq and Maliseet men of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia signed up. And, although small, Saskatchewan's File Hills community offered most of its eligible men. In British Columbia, the Lake Band saw every single man between the ages of 20 and 35 volunteer. Native women also helped with the First World War effort, contributing their skills as nurses. This is impressive, considering news of the war didn't reach some Canadian native communities easily. Reserves in the Yukon and Northwest Territories and in northern sections of the provinces had few transportation and communication links with the rest of Canada. Native peoples living in these areas were often unaware of the war or were unable to enlist without great effort. But they did. For example, at least 15 Inuit, or people having some Inuit ancestry, from Labrador joined the 1st Newfoundland Regiment. As well, about 100 Ojibwa from isolated areas north of Thunder Bay, Ont., made their way to the nearest recruiting centre. Many of them served in the 52nd Canadian Light Infantry Battalion — and at least six were awarded medals for bravery. But, their successes were not without sacrifices. In the First World War, at least 300 native soldiers lost their lives, either to warfare or to illnesses, such as tuberculosis. Second World War In the Second World War, Canada's aboriginal communities again joined in the war effort. Compulsory service for home defence began in 1940, and most aboriginal people were no longer exempt from conscription. By 1942, compulsory overseas service was implemented, and in 1943, the government declared that as British subjects, all able native men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas. Only the Inuit were exempt. Many native bands responded with protest marches and petitions delivered to Ottawa. The issue was raised in the House of Commons several times, and in 1944, the war cabinet committee decided to exempt aboriginal people who had been assured during treaty negotiations that they wouldn't be involved in British battles. Still, many native people volunteered to serve in the Second World War - more than 3,000 enlisted. And, at home, aboriginal peoples were helping out monetarily. When the war ended, the Indian Affairs Branch noted the donation of more than $23,000 from Canadian Native bands plus additional, unknown amounts sent directly to the Red Cross, the British War Victims Fund, the Salvation Army and similar charities, along with gifts of clothing and other items. More than 200 native soldiers were killed or died as a result of the Second World War. They earned at least 18 decorations for bravery in action. They were a part of every major battle and campaign, from the Dieppe landings to the Normandy invasion. They also served in Hong Kong where just fewer than 2,000 members of the Winnipeg Grenadiers and the Royal Rifles of Canada became prisoners of war of the Japanese. At least 16 in that group were native peoples. The Korean War Many veterans of World War Two, and some new recruits, served in the Korean War. While some served in infantry, many joined the Canadian Army Special Force for Korean service. It was a brigade group, raised by voluntary enlistment and specially trained as part of the regular army. It is estimated that several hundred brigade members were native peoples. It is unknown exactly how many of them were killed or died in Korea, but about 500 Canadians lost their lives in the war, according to Veterans Affairs Canada. A family tradition It's not clear why Canada's aboriginal peoples responded to each war effort with such fervour. Many native veterans volunteered for the same reasons other Canadians did, because their friends and relatives did, for patriotism, for the chance of adventure or simply to earn a guaranteed wage. But, serving in the military became somewhat of a family tradition for some First Nations people. The legacy of Joseph Brant, the legendary Mohawk warrior who fought alongside the British during the Seven Years War with France and the American Revolutionary War, is a case in point. His youngest son, John, followed in his footsteps as captain of the Northern Confederate Indians, fighting against the Americans in the War of 1812. Later, Joseph Brant's great-great grandson, Cameron, commanded a platoon of the 4th Canadian Infantry Battalion. He was killed in 1915 in Belgium, while leading a counter-attack on enemy trenches, at age 28. Whatever the reason, Canada's aboriginals made a significant contribution to the war effort. Honouring the Past On June 21, 2001 &:8212; National Aboriginal Day &:8212; Gov. Gen. Adrienne Clarkson unveiled the National Aboriginal Veterans War Monument in Ottawa. Clarkson described the history of aboriginal veterans as a glorious tradition, if much ignored. "The thousands of miles that aboriginal soldiers travelled over the course of more than two centuries to help defend this country make up a thousand memories, so many of which have been ignored or lost," she said. "Yet these are the details of our history which we must remember, which we must commemorate," she said. Clarkson said the monument commemorates the specific battles and campaigns of the past, but also honours the spiritual elements essential to the culture of aboriginal peoples. "This spirit of service and sacrifice continues internationally to this day, with aboriginal soldiers deployed in peacekeeping missions around world." That legacy lives on today. As of 2000, First Nations, Inuit and Métis made up 1.4 per cent, or 1,275 members, of the current Canadian Forces, according to the Department of National Defence. And, recruitment is continuing through the Canadian Forces Aboriginal Entry Program, which offers aboriginal candidates the opportunity to explore military life to make an informed decision about joining. Reading One: The Battle of Vimy Ridge, 9-12 April 1917Many historians and writers consider the Canadian victory at Vimy a defining moment for Canada, when the country emerged from under the shadow of Britain and felt capable of greatness. Canadian troops also earned a reputation as formidable, effective troops because of the stunning success. But it was a victory at a terrible cost, with more than 10,000 killed and wounded. The Canadian Corps was ordered to seize Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Situated in northern France, the heavily-fortified seven-kilometre ridge held a commanding view over the Allied lines. The Canadians would be a  ssaulting over an open graveyard since previous French attacks had failed with over 100,000 casualties.
To capture this difficult position, the Canadians would carefully plan and rehearse their attack. To provide greater flexibility and firepower in battle, the infantry were given specialist roles as machine-gunners, rifle-men and grenade-throwers. These same soldiers underwent weeks of training behind the lines using models to represent the battlefield, and new maps crafted from aerial photographs to guide their way. To bring men forward safely for the assault, engineers dug deep tunnels from the r  ear to the front. Despite this training and preparation, the key to victory would be a devastating artillery barrage that would not only isolate enemy trenches, but provide a moving wall of high explosives and shrapnel to force the Germans to stay in their deep dugouts and away from their machine-guns. "Chaps, you shall go over exactly like a railroad train, on time, or you shall be annihilated," warned Canadian Corps commander Sir Julian Byng.
"In those few minutes I witnessed the birth of a nation." BGen A.E. Ross In the week leading up to the battle, Canadian and British artillery pounded the enemy positions on the ridge, killing and tormenting defenders. New artillery tactics allowed the gunners to first target, then destroy enemy positions. A nearly limitless supply of artillery shells and the new 106 fuse, which allowed shells to explode on contact, as opposed to burying themselves in ground, facilitated the destruction of hardened defences and barbed wire. The Canadian infantry would be well supported when it went into battle with over 1,000 artillery pieces laying down withering, s  upportive fire.
Attacking together for the first time, the four Canadian divisions stormed the ridge at 5:30am on 9 April 1917. More than 15,000 Canadian infantry overran the Germans all along the front. Incredible bravery and discipline allowed the infantry to continue moving forward under heavy fire, even when their officers were killed. There were countless acts of sacrifice, as Canadians single-handedly charged machine-gun nests or forced the surrender of Germans in protective dugouts. Hill 145, the highest and most important feature of the Ridge, and where the Vimy monument now stands, was captured in a frontal bayonet charge against machine-gun positions. Three more days of costly battle delivered final victory. The Canadian operation was an important success, even if the larger British and French offensive, of which it had been a part, had failed. But it was victory at a heavy cost: 3,598 Canadians were killed and another 7,000 wounded. The capture of Vimy was more than just an important battlefield victory. For the first time all four Canadian divisions attacked together: men from all regions of Canada were present at the battle. Brigadier-General A.E. Ross declared after the war, "in those few minutes I witnessed the birth of a nation." Vimy became a symbol for the sacrifice of the young Dominion. In 1922, the French government ceded to Canada in perpetuity Vimy Ridge, and the land surrounding it. The gleaming white marble and haunting sculptures of the Vimy Memorial, unveiled in 1936, stand as a terrible and poignant reminder of the more than sixty thousand Canadians who died serving their country during the First World War. 
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