Final Report March 2000
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Note: EU indicates 8 countries in EU; Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, UK. Source: Transport Canada, Transportation in Canada: 1996 Annual Report 2.2.2 Urban Development and Transportation in Urbanizing Countries The major urbanizing countries in the APEC region are Brunei, China, Indonesia, Korea and the Philippines. These countries suffer from serious imbalance between transport demand and supply of transport facilities. In particular, various transport problems comes out from the poor planning and development of the residential complex of suburban areas. In Jakarta, a metropolitan city with a population of 9.11 million (about 20 million including Greater Jakarta) and a daily transport demand of 10 millions (21 millions including Greater Jakarta), urban transport depends on about 16,000 buses and minibuses, and urban railways have not been operated actually5. In case of Brunei Darusalam, registered buses are 150 only throughout the nation, and only 94 out of them are operated for public transport. As a result, due to the poor public transport system, most of the urban transport depends on automobiles6. Metropolitan Manila, Philippine’s national capital region, had shown its population growth by 51% during the period of 1980 and 1995, to reach 9 million in 1995. However, the LRT (Light Rail Transit) which started its operation in 1984, has extended 15 Km so far and only 1.9% of urban passengers use it. Two thirds of the passengers depend on jitneys (44.1%), buses (23.6%) and automobiles(30%)7.
Source: Various China is undergoing rapid urbanization since the open-door policy in late 1970s. During the period between 1980 and1995, its urban population has increased by 2.6 times, and it had as many as 32 cities with a population of over 1 million as of 1994. According to a report, however, the quality of highways in these cities is evaluated to be below 1/3 of the highway level in developed countries. Nevertheless, the quality of public transport is becoming worse owing to the deterioration of public transport facilities and service8. In Korea, the urban population ratio of 56.9% in 1980 increased to 81.3% in 1995. 47% of urban population are concentrated in its 6 largest cities, and more than 20 million, about 1/4 of the whole population, are living in Seoul Metropolitan Area. Since 1980, the Korean government has invested about 2% of the GDP in transport annually. Out of them, more than 20% has been injected in urban highways and about 15% in urban railways9. However, along with the rapid growth of car-ownership, the imbalance between transport demand and the supply of facilities still remains10. In case of Bangkok, during the period from 1980 to1995 it showed population growth by about 40% and grew to be a mammoth city with a population of 6.5 millions. It is estimated that its population will be over 10 millions in early 2000s. Bangkok is located in a low, swampy place and always exposed to floods. Due to such circumstances, construction of subway in Bangkok is considered difficult. As a result, public transport in Bangkok depends on bus and taxi, and despite of heavy traffic congestion, which takes 2 hours for a round trip between the urban area and suburbs (15~20 Km), about 1/3 of the whole city population depend on their own automobiles. 2. 3 Urban Transport Problems and Policies 2.3.1 Urban Transport Problems and Policies in Urbanized Economies Even stabilized cities in developed countries suffer from the problems such as traffic congestion or air pollution as in developing countries. However, it is true that the degree of seriousness is much lower than in developing countries. Furthermore, there is a big difference between developed and developing countries in awareness and policy directions on the same transport problems. For solving the problems of traffic congestion, for instance, the cities in developed countries turn their policy directions towards travel demand management rather than the expansion of highways, whereas developing countries still focus on the expansion of highways. Urban transport problems concerned by the cities in developed countries can be generally summarized as follows;
In Canada, the country began to reconsider its conventional urban transport planning which has focused on a auto-friendly scheme. Traditional land use planning mainly focusing on the auto transport has promoted urban sprawl. This has brought a vicious circle of the less populated suburban development, long travel distance and less transit usage and more auto-dependence. Although public transport facilities are operated, travel share of them is very low, and owing to its urban structure, it is not possible to commute or go shopping by walking or bicycling11. In the USA, it is reported that 88.2% of the whole travelers depend on automobiles and only 2.5% on public transport12. With suburbanization, public transport demand is decreasing and level of service is deteriorating. Virtually, under sprawled and suburbanized urban structure, it is very difficult to serve the travel demands without automobiles. Therefore, as far as the USA is concerned, it is unavoidable that the country should maintain the existing auto-oriented transport system while minimizing transport problems followed by it. Those policy directions are summarized in the ISTEA (Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act) as a major paradigm; sound planning, environmental concern, public involvement, flexible funding, and development of ITS, etc13. Japan, alone among developed countries, has a relatively low automobile dependence despite of the expansion of metropolitan cities. It copes with the urban transport problems through infrastructure measures and software measures. Infrastructure measures focus on the addition of the urban railway systems and software measures on the management of travel demand such as hourly dispersion of travel demand. 2.3.2 Urban Transportation Problems and Policies in Urbanizing Countries Growing cities in urbanizing countries have the transport problems such as traffic congestion, air pollution and noise problems, as in developed countries. However, despite of relatively low car-ownership, the seriousness of the problems is much higher than in developed countries. Another serious problem is the traffic accident problem, which is different from in developed countries. When considering that the traffic accident is mainly attributed to the driver, traffic accident problem is a social and cultural issue, as well as structural and technological issues. Transport problems in developing countries can be summarized as follows. ● Insufficient transport infrastructure ● Poor management of land-use development and transport facilities
● Low capacity, inefficiency and low level of service of public transport system ● Traffic congestion ● Increase of traffic accidents and high fatality ● Increase in air pollution and noise problems It is reported that, in the downtown of the metropolitan cities in most developing countries, vehicle speed is about 20 Km/h on an average. It gets much lower, around 15 Km/h or even below 10 Km/h, during peak hours (Refer to Table 2.3.1).
Source: Various Statistics and Reports Growth of car ownership can be seen in almost cities. One of the main causes is an improvement of living standard thanks to economic development and growth of the income. Such cases are typical in Korea or Chinese Taipei. Despite of their relatively well-organized public transport system, high growth of car ownership is expected to continue. Meanwhile, in Brunei the lack of appropriate public transport system encourages the high growth of auto-ownership. As of 1995, about 142 thousand automobiles were registered in Brunei which had a population of about 0.3 million. This implies that one auto per every two persons is owned, and 2~3 automobiles per household on the average. Despite of the government’s strong policy to repress the growth of auto-ownership, the rate is that high. Brunei government views the main reason of the high growth of the auto-ownership as a lack of efficient public transport system14. The condition of public transport system varies in terms of the system structure, operating method, and service level. Korea and Chinese Taipei are equipped with the urban railways and various types of buses and taxis. China, Indonesia Philippines and Thailand are at the introductory stage of urban railways and rely on the buses or minibuses. Due to the insufficiency of the bus system, however, bicycles and motorcycles occupy a large portion of urban travel demand. High frequency and severity of traffic accidents are the most serious problems that most of the cities in developing countries have to resolve. In particular, fatality from traffic accidents is very high. For example, in 1994 Korea showed 21 deaths per 100 million veh-km’s, more than 10 times higher than that of Japan, 1.5 deaths per 100 million veh-km’s.
Source: IRF, World Road Statistics '98 The directions of the urban transport policies of developing countries are as follows. Construction of high capacity public transport modes such as subway In Korea, from the late 1980s, the construction of subways has been actively progressed in Seoul and in other metropolitan cities which have more than one million population. In Manila, Jakarta, Beijing and Bangkok, construction of urban railways is being promoted. However, with an economic depression and subsequent funding problems since the end of 1997, it appears that urban railway projects will be held back or delayed. Expansion of the highway networks and increase of the capacity through widening In the cities in developing countries, unlike in developed countries where highway networks are almost completed, the expansion of the highway networks and widening still remain as an important task. Accordingly, investment in highways focuses on new construction and widening, rather than simply maintenance. Improvement of the existing public transport system In the cities of most developing countries having poor urban railways, bus system is an important public transport mode. Operation efficiency and service level of the bus system is very low in general, but hardly any clear policy is found in improving them. Repression of the growth of auto-ownership, and various travel demand management policies In Brunei, Korea and Singapore, policies to control growth of auto-ownership have been attempted. Brunei government tries to control the auto-ownership by high tariff for imported cars. Unfortunately, such policy was hardly found to be effective. In Korea, garage certificate system was considered for auto-ownership control in early 1990s. Singapore introduced Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) in 1970s and developed Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) in 1990s for the control of automobile use. Korea introduced a congestion fee system to control the automobile use in highly congested urban corridors in 1996. Measures to traffic accident and air pollutant emission In case of developing countries, concerns for the policies to resolve these problems are still insufficient, and no remarkable and effective policies were reported. 2.4 Problems in Land Use and Transport Planning 2.4.1 Less-Integrated Management of Land-Use and Transportation Relationship between Land-Use Planning and Transportation Planning Transportation planning is closely related to land-use and urban development. It is also true that areas with high accessibility to transportation systems are inclined to achieve active urbanization. Even though there was a good accessibility to transportation systems at the early stage of development, continuous unplanned urban development may lead, in the long run, to the negative condition accompanying traffic congestion caused by an excess transport demand. In the relationship between land-use and transportation, the development of individual buildings and highway system accessible to these buildings, as well as a macroscopic urban framework, are directly related to the function of highways and passenger safety. Newman, Kenworthy and Laube (1997) classified cities into 3 types in terms of the development of major transport system; walking city, transit city, and automobile city. A walking city, a relatively small-sized city with a high population density, has narrow roads and mixed land-use patterns. A transit city is a fairly dense and spread city along the transit line and stations, with a strong emphasis on CBD. An automobile city is a widely spread city over a vast area with well-organized highway networks. Such a classification means that types of urban development may be changed by the characteristics of transportation mode. In 1980s, many cities of developing countries in the APEC region pursued to build automobile cities, like in North America or Australia, in spite of their limitation of resources. They considered the automobile-dependent transportation system as a symbol of a developed and wealthy country, because they thought the automobile as a mode that can give relatively faster, more flexible, more private and better door-to-door service. The automobile-oriented development may lead to unbalanced urban transportation systems, relating to transportation demand and supply, and it may produce much transportation problems such as high congestion, frequent traffic accidents, air pollution and inaccessibility for the minors. Traffic Congestion and Air Pollution Problem Air pollution in large cities is brought largely from vehicle emissions. In particular, severe traffic congestion brings more serious air pollution problems because of an increasing amount of harmful vehicle emissions generated by the incombustible fuels. Less-integrated management of land-use and transportation system, as well as traffic congestion, causes air pollution problem. In case traffic volume is concentrated in one place during a certain time zone, air pollutants cannot spread out into the air within a short time and may become fatally harmful to the passengers, pedestrians, and residents in the region. Even if the same number of vehicles are operated within a city, air pollution problem may be alleviated if the vehicles are spatially dispersed. The arrangement and height of buildings and the width and directions of roads may have an effect on the microclimate of the region. Therefore, for urban development, an attention have to be paid to practice a well-integrated management of land-use and transportation system, along with the arrangement and height of buildings, arrangement of roads, and other measures. Inaccessibility Problems Inaccessibility problems can be issued from 2 standpoints. Firstly, inaccessibility can be present owing to a lack of overall transportation infrastructure. Secondly, even though an urban transportation system provides a good accessibility, inaccessibility may be present as some groups of people actually experience difficulties in accessing to the transportation system. Even in developed countries, in case of cities lacking efficient transportation system, citizens may experience inaccessibility problem, owing to traffic congestion here and there. It is often impossible to control all the trips concentrated in downtown during the peak hours by the road transport system only. It is general to attempt to resolve inaccessibility problem using a mass transport system. Another type of inaccessibility is a problem experienced by some minor groups of people. It can be observed in cities having an auto-dependent transportation system. In cities where the road supply is sufficient, but lacks efficiency in public transport system, a group of people without easy access to the use of autos experiences great difficulties in travelling. In case of captive riders such as the poor, the handicapped, the young and the elderly, it is virtually difficult for them to drive autos because they are not financially strong enough to drive autos or they are placed at a disadvantageous position. Such problems can be observed in less populated, but expanded cities, or in the cities which have not developed proper transit systems. From the viewpoint of transportation, a desirable city is a transit-oriented city. It is superior to an automobile-oriented city in terms of economic efficiency, environmental friendliness, and social equity. Therefore, a number of automobile-oriented cities in advanced countries strive to maintain proper modal shares among transportation modes by transit-preferential policies. However, in order for the public transport system to be operated with efficiency and stability, good public transport infrastructure and land-use policy have to be provided at the same time. If this is not the case, a city is subject to be confined to an automobile-oriented city because the service quality of public transport should be poorer than that of autos provided to the passengers, resulting in loss of relative competition power of public transport. In such cities, it is difficult for public transportation to secure sizable patronage for economic profitability and it possibly results in the gradual deterioration of transit service and heavier dependence on autos. During the peak hours when automobiles are concentrated in downtown, severe traffic congestion is generally experienced even in cities with well-constructed roads. In the downtown of a metropolitan city which is already developed fully, however, it often has the limitation to the improvement of transport system by the expansion and new construction of highways because land prices are too high. Therefore, a number of developed cities in advanced countries show interests on transportation operation policies such as TSM (transportation system management) and TDM (transportation demand management), rather than seeking a solution through highway supply. Auto-Dependence and Inadequate Public Transportation System Problems An auto-dependence can be defined as a situation in which people cannot but depend on cars. In the case of public transportation, it is difficult to maintain a short headway for passengers’ convenience owing to the economic operation when there are no sizable patronage. Therefore, in less developed areas, the public transport service gets poor, resulting in high auto-dependence. As we have seen, the high auto-dependence means a severe limitation to the activities of the poor, the handicapped, the young and the elderly. The inaccessibility problems occur to certain groups of people, resulting in a disparity problem among social classes. Auto-dependence also causes problems such as air pollution, urban sprawl, traffic noise, and traffic severance, besides the inaccessibility problem. Therefore, auto-oriented transportation systems perhaps cannot be an efficient urban transport system in terms of environmental, economic, and social aspects. Traffic Domination and Pedestrian Safety Problem Transportation system has to be designed to improve the quality of life for all people. Auto-oriented urban development and transportation system may allow the smooth flow of vehicles, but may be inconvenient or dangerous to pedestrians. They may also result in a negative effect in terms of environmental, social and aesthetic aspects. In case of Seoul, Korea, a number of highways with 10 lanes or more have been constructed in order to handle a high volume of traffics at a high speed, but collectors and distributors are relatively insufficient. As a result, negative impacts such as severance and traffic domination have occurred. The ECMT Report (1995) warns on the problems of wide roads as follows. “The combination of wide roads, widely-spaced junctions and high speeds greatly limits the points at which pedestrians can cross safely. Even away from the major arteries, heavy and fast traffic, combined with large number of parked vehicles at particularly vulnerable places (like shopping parades and schools), add to the danger. And in all these areas, noise and fumes make the experience even less pleasant. Mankind needs to humanize his cities and towns.” Meanwhile, metropolitan cities of some developing countries report that an efficient use of road is discouraged by high travel share of bicycles or motorcycles. It is considered that a desirable traffic environment can be provided when bicycle path is well provided and its modal share is maintained at a reasonable level. In case of China, bicycles occupy a high share in modal split, and a number of resulting problems take place with the mix of vehicles and bicycles operated on the roads together. Li (1996) reported this problem as follows15. “In Republic of China, the modal split of travels provided by most of the large cities revealed that the share of the public transportation in the total trips was reduced from 30 % to 10 % while that of the bicycle transportation increased to 50 %. Almost every person who can ride a bicycle owns a bike in cities. The expansion of bicycles has put much pressure on the existing insufficient road, resulting in very difficult traffic conditions. Because of the limited road space together with the encroachment by parking bicycles, cars and street vendors, the mix of pedestrians, bicycles and vehicle traffic has become a very serious problem and, on the other hand, caused many problems like congestion and economic loss.” In many of South-East Asian cities, all kinds of vehicles, bicycles, motorcycles, and pedestrians are mixed on a common road together. It decreases the efficiency of road usage and increases the probability of accidents. Kenworthy(1995) describes, from the experience in Bangkok, the problems when the separate right-of-ways for pedestrians and bicycles are not properly prepared at the urban developmental stage16. “Bangkok’s level of walking and cycling is atypically low for an Asian urban environment. This appears to be related to the general hostility of the pedestrian environment and the dangers of riding a bike – there are no bike lanes or other facilities. Most main roads have poor footpaths, and where they have been widened and perhaps planted with trees – to relieve the hot climate – there is so much noise and so many fumes that walking is an ordeal.” As shown from the example of Bangkok, the cause of traffic domination problem is often due to the inadequate planing, design, construction, operation and management of facilities for vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles, rather than due to the operation of vehicles on highways. If a transit supportive urban development can be promoted from the early stage of urban growth, cities having low auto-dependence and high travel share of public transportation can be formed. Such a transit-oriented development not only can achieve an efficient urban transportation system, but also minimize negative effects such as air pollution, traffic congestion, and traffic domination. The more patrons of public transportation exist, the higher possibility of forming pedestrian environment can be realized. Therefore, transport policies guiding to a high travel share of public transport can be effective for reducing the problems of traffic domination. Kenworthy(1995) describes traffic problems in Los Angeles City with respect to the traffic domination. “Los Angeles has attempted to function almost totally on automobiles and has been reluctant to develop a public transport system of any significance or to control land use. Los Angeles is now one of the most problematic environments in the western world.” It is most necessary to request an integrated plan of urban development and transportation systematically in order to practice it in real situations. For example, in Japan, a special law for the unified promotion of housing area development and transit maintenance was established in September 1989. It requires the local government to build a unified plan on housing development and regional transit maintenance. In this manner, when required, specialists and practitioners from various related areas should be able to discuss and cooperate together in the planning process. In a large-scale land development project, the institutionalization of an integrated plan for the project including transportation planning can minimize various transportation problems resulting from the poor management of land-use and transportation. 2.5 Challenges and Tasks for the Future With respect to the urban growth, a balanced development of cities is an important task to be pursued, especially in developing countries. Growing of a capital city into a huge metropolitan city, while other small cities are undeveloped, is not desirable in the sense that such unbalanced growth makes a resource allocation inadequate and gives a negative impact on regional equity. In the process of development in a specific urban area, it is substantial that land development and transport infrastructure should be harmonized with an appropriate balance. Highway networks and public transport system such as urban railways should be planned comprehensively and systematically in accordance with development scale and density. In the cities in highly urbanized countries, especially in North America and in Oceania, urban sprawling and suburbanization have resulted in less populated, dispersed city structure, in which people have to rely on automobiles unavoidably. In the future, the cities should seek desirable re-directions to minimize the negative impacts from high auto-dependency:
In most of developing countries, the expansion of transportation infrastructure is a critical task, but the investment, especially for public transport facilities, is limited mainly due to the lack of funds and technological obstacles. While infrastructure development is not proceeded adequately, urban population grows continuously and so does the car ownership. Increase of private vehicles, including deviant paratransit modes such as motorcycles, in the situation that regular public transport services are not provided adequately is likely to drive the traffic condition chaotic, as shown in some Southeast Asian cities. Therefore, in terms of urban transportation, major tasks of the cities in developing countries are as follows.
A number of scholars and practitioners recognize that it is desirable to build an integrated comprehensive urban land-use and transportation plan. However, it is often a very difficult task to achieve it in the real world, especially in developing countries. One of the reasons is that each of them is built by different group with different viewpoint, without any good coordination between them. Another reason is that, since change in land-use patterns takes place over a long period of time, high uncertainty on the future discourages anyone from promoting policies with confidence in a powerful manner at the early developmental stage. Although it is not easy to evaluate the interactive effects between land-use and transportation precisely, it is possible, to a certain degree, to forecast conceivable transportation patterns in accordance with given land-use policies. Therefore, even though change in land-use and urban activity systems may not be taken into account, a transportation system suitable at least for the proposed development planning should be considered. It is not easy to clearly define the optimum structured city with respect to transportation and land-use. Such a city may not exist because the characteristics of each city and common awareness of citizens living in the city vary city by city. It appears to be necessary to continue the study so that land-use/transportation integration model may be put into a practical use for the reliable evaluation of transportation and land-use in terms of civil satisfaction, economy and efficiency of civic activities. Ch 3. Transportation Infrastructure and Car Ownership 3.1 Infrastructure Development in the APEC Region 3.1.1 Highway Facilities In the APEC region, the economic growth of the recent decades have greatly stimulated the development of infrastructures, along with the following aspects of socioeconomic development,
Nationwide highway facilities of the APEC member economies are shown in
Source: IRF, World Road Statistics 1998 … data not available 3.1.2 Railways Nationwide rail facilities of the APEC member economies are shown in
Source: UN, Statistical Yearbook for Asia and Pacific 1997 … data not available
3.2.1 Urban Highways The highways in the major cities in the APEC member economies are shown in
Note: include metropolitan areas Source: Various
Source: Various
In order to meet fast growing urban travel demand, along with the construction of urban highways, many cities are providing urban railway services, as shown in
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