Final Report March 2000
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- Private Sector Investment for Transport in Selected APEC Member Economies
- 3.4.3 Problems in the Transport Investment
- 3.5. Challenges and Tasks for the Future
- Ch 4. Traffic Condition and Public Transport 4.1 Public Transport Systems in the APEC Region
- 4.1.1 Public Transportation in Selected Cities Bangkok
- Modal Shares of Passenger Transport in Bangkok Metropolitan Region
- Public Transport in Hong Kong
- Situation of General Bus
- Financial support for bus service
- Passenger Travel Shares by Mode in Jakarta
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Source: Related Acts of Japan Since early 1990s, due to the insufficient amount of funds and the inefficiency from public sectors in meeting the demand, the private sector involvement for transport facilities was introduced, as in other infrastructure development. It is to alleviate financing problems from public sectors only and utilize the efficiency of private sectors. Out of several types of private financing such as BOT(Build-Operate-Transfer), BTO (Build-Transfer-Operate), BOO(Build-Operate-Own), private-public partnership, BOT is most popular as private financing. Public-Private Partnership is often applied in a sense that the public sectors are to share the risk with private sectors. There are two capital markets where such private funds are raised: the domestic market and the international market. Japan and Korea focus on the private fund inducement from the domestic market, whereas South East Asian countries, such as Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, focus on the private financing from international market. However, due to the limitation of the domestic financial market after the 1997 economic crisis, Korea strives to raise funds from the international money market.
Source: ADB, Capital Data Project Financeware, 1998 3.4.3 Problems in the Transport Investment Problems in the transport facility investment are summarized as follows. Firstly, the amount of investment for transportation facilities doesn’t meet the requirements for the transport demand. In underdeveloped countries where urbanization has not been realized, the absolute amount of investment for transport facilities is poor mainly because of the lack of financial resources. In middle-income countries where urbanization is still underway, though active investment in transportation is being performed, they are not sufficient for catching up with the fast growing transport demand, especially the growth of cars. Secondarily, even though private fund raising is promoted in order to make up the insufficient funds from public sectors, it was held back because private investment has been decreasing with the economic crisis in the Asian countries. So much, private involvement on infrastructure is unstable depending on the condition of private investors and economy. 3.5. Challenges and Tasks for the Future In most of developing countries, they need continuous investment for the transport infrastructure, but actual amount of investment does not meet the requirements by some reasons. One of the significant reasons of insufficient investment on transport investment is a difficulty in financing. In case of urbanizing countries, therefore, it is inevitable to introduce special purpose tax to utilize its revenue to the investment. Since growing car-ownership is a continuous trend in most developing countries, taxation on fuels will be an effective policy. It is useful for the travel demand management, as well as for the fund raising for the transport infrastructure development. Along with public financing, it might be inevitable to utilize the private funds. When the domestic money market is limited, it might be required to seek the inducement of foreign funds from the international market. For that, various incentives including tax reduction or deregulation will have to be followed. In case of countries where high car-ownership has brought the unbalance between travel demand and transport facilities despite of much investment on the transport facilities, it is inevitable to apply traffic control policies over the increasing demand for transport, such as congestion charge in Korea. Also, it will be a good policy alternative to reduce additional transport investment needs to by increasing the capacity of the existing transport facilities by the operational policy such as ITS. Since the 1980s, a number of APEC countries have been promoting the construction and management of urban transportation facilities through the inducement of private funds. This process has some advantages over the public sector. First of all, private sector adapts to the market more quickly and can raise investment funds more efficiently. It can manage various types of risk effectively, produce better performance, provide quality service and improve the efficiency through more advanced management technology. The role of the government for the active and successful involvement of private sectors is important. First, the government should provide a transparent policy framework and implementation process with well-organized legal system. Second, an innovative and vital competition has to be applied based on the market principles. Third, economic principles have to be recognized to supply efficient urban transport service and set the price. Fourth, consistent efforts have to be made to maintain a rational regulation system, to reasonably disperse the risks, and to seek the efficiency though the competitive market condition. Ch 4. Traffic Condition and Public Transport 4.1 Public Transport Systems in the APEC Region It is generally viewed that transport problems in large cities take place owing to the following two factors. Firstly, transport demand increases with rapid urbanization and economic development, but the investment in transport facilities for coping with the situation is relatively poor. Secondarily, the existing transport system is not managed and operated efficiently. Many countries suffer from serious traffic congestion because they failed to promote proper public transport-oriented policies to cope with the increase of automobiles. In particular, metropolitan cities among the APEC region, which have experienced a rapid increase of cars, are required to prepare measures by referring to urban transportation problems and their causes experienced by other countries in the past. The current report is intended to view urban transport problems experienced by the APEC member countries and present promotional tasks to vitalize public transportation with typical examples from some countries. Public transportation modes operated in cities in the APEC region are various, from non-motorized paratransit mode to the advanced urban rails. Operating bodies of these transport modes include governments, public organizations, private sectors, and mixed types. Examples of public transportation in major cities are as follows. 4.1.1 Public Transportation in Selected Cities Bangkok Bangkok is the capital and center of industry, commerce, education, administration, and politics in Thailand, with a population of 5.6 million in an area of 1,569㎢. Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR), including 5 surrounding cities, has about 9.1 million people. As of 1996, it was reported that BMR generated more than 21.3 million travels a day. Out of them, 40.6% traveled by public transport, 28.9% by private cars, 19.4% by motorcycles, and 11.1% by walking19. The bus is the main public transport mode in Bangkok. About 4,000 buses are operated in 136 routes by Bangkok Metropolitan Transit Authority(BMTA). Besides BMTA buses, private van buses are operated illegally. During the period from 1980 to 1987, the number of registered cars in Bangkok has increased almost twice due to economic development and poor public transport system. Traffic congestion in Bangkok is very serious. According to an analysis, about 30% of highways are saturated or heavily congested in peak hours, and those seriously congested highways are distributed within 10Km radius areas from the Bangkok central area. Thus, all commuters working in the central area cannot escape the severe traffic congestion every day. It has been estimated that the economic cost of traffic congestion in Bangkok exceeds US$ 2 billion a year, which was more than the total government budget for the national transport sector in 1995.
Note: HBW = Home-Based Work Trip, HBE = Home-Based Education Trip, HBO = Home-Based Other Trip, NHB = Non-Home-Based Trip Source: Pacific Consultants International, Suuri-Keikaku Co. (1996) The city is trapped in the ‘vicious circle’ of increase of private cars, severe traffic congestion which obstructs a smooth operation of buses, and the more use of private cars and motorcycles due to the poor bus service. Mass transit system may be a key for breaking the problems. Currently, some commuter trains are operated in Bangkok Metropolitan region, but carrying relatively very small amount of passengers. In recent years, National Government of Thailand and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration have promoted 3 major rail mass transit systems; The Bangkok Transit System, Hopewell Project(Bangkok Elevated Road and Rail Transit Systems) and The Metropolitan Rapid Transit System20. As of 1999, they are not open yet. Some of them are under construction and some are delayed owing to serious financing problems. All of the 3 projects were planned to utilize private investment, but the private financing has been obstructed since the economic downturn in 1995 and the projects have been delayed so far. Hong Kong Hong Kong, with a population of 6.8 millions and about 1,100 km2 in size, is a city which has a high density of development. In Hong Kong, various public transportation modes, such as subway, bus, and even ferry, are operated with various kinds of fares and service qualities. It is reported that about 11 million passengers use the public transportation modes every day, accounting for 81% of the total traffic volume. Public transportation service is operated both by private and public enterprises under a mutual competition. Government plays a leading role to control and adjust the system through various public transport policies. Major directions of public transportation policies are as follows:
Buses are the most important passenger transportation mode. They, including minibuses, occupy about 65% of total transportation. Franchise bus service is provided by 5 private companies, without government subsidy. Government bears a part of the investment on traffic safety, vehicle maintenance, and construction of bus terminals, in connection with public transportation infrastructure. The 16-passenger minibuses are operated in high demand areas. Minibuses consist of green minibus, which has fixed route, fare and frequency, and red minibus, which runs irregularly. There is no government regulation on red minibus in terms of route, schedule and fare. It implies that the fare of red minibus is elastic depending on demand. In Hong Kong, China, various urban railways and fixed-track systems are operated. They include a sub-urban railway connecting urban Kowloon to the boundary with Mainland (KCR), and inter-district subway system (MTR), light rail transit, tramway, etc. The KCR provides for the majority of cross boundary passenger trips and carried more than 750,000 passengers per day in 1998. The MTR is a 77.2Km network for inter-districts commuting as well as connection to the airport. The daily patronage on MTR is about 2.3 million trips. Tramway provides low speed, but the cheapest public transport service running at US$25C for a single trip. Ferry, a transport mode with long history in Hong Kong as a port city, still provides for essential service to outlying island and for tourism traffic. In Jakarta, the main public transport mode is the bus. Bus service consists of city bus, medium-sized bus and small-sized bus. There are more than 16,000 buses, but more than 75% of them are medium-sized and small-sized ones. It is reported that 60 % of buses are highly overloaded, and that more than 50% of passengers need transfer because of route problems. The role of urban rails is very poor, occupying only 3% of passenger transportation. Despite of the urgent need of the expansion of urban rails, it is not promising mainly because of financing problem. Due to the increasing car-ownership and poor service in public transport, modal share of public transport is getting decrease, from 55.1% in 1990 to 49.5% in 1995. Unit: %
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