Greek mythology



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Baths and Bathing - In a land that was often dusty and dry, the Greeks placed great symbolic importance on the rituals of bathing. Maidservants usually assisted in bathing the master of the house. In place of soap, the Greeks used olive oil, which they applied and then scraped off along with the dirt that adhered to it. It was a customary show of hospitality to provide a newly-arrived guest with a fancy bath.
Benedictions - the opposite of curses (see below). A powerful person or god might reward you by verbally promising or stating that good things were bound to happen to you. A benediction, like an oath or curse, was pretty much guaranteed.
Curses - the Greeks’ explanation for “why bad things happen to good people” - Every culture seeks an explanation for why good people suffer horrible things in their lives. The Greeks explained such occurrences through the concept of curses. According to the Greeks, “the sins of the parents could be visited on the children.” That is to say, if your parents (or great-great-great grandparents!) had committed some horrible crime, such as hubris, YOU could suffer as part of the gods’ curse upon the original sinner. (Prophets or other persons, as allowed by gods, might also level such curses.) If you were the recipient of a curse, your best option was to suffer with humility.
Disguises - Gods and humans frequently used disguises in Greek myths. Disguises can be created by human ingenuity or conferred upon a person with the help of a god. The magic of a disguise enables the wearer to be unrecognized by anyone, even his closest loved ones, unless a god decides to lift the veil from the eyes of that loved one. The Greek love of disguises reminds us of the excitement of taking on another identity or of the excitement of being “invisible” even in the midst of people you know.
Dramatic Irony - a situation in which a character uses words that mean one thing to the character but mean something else to the audience because the audience knows more about the situation than the character knows. When a villain proclaims that he will never be defeated, but the hero is standing right in front of him in disguise, the villain’s words display dramatic irony.
Epic - a long narrative poem which passes along stories that are central to the identity of a nation or culture. Epics contain many tangential stories but usually focus on one great historical event or one great hero. Ancient epics were developed and memorized by epic poets (they might be called minstrels; West African griots are a kind of epic poet). These poets served long apprenticeships to learn the epic poems before they assumed the responsibility of performing the epics themselves. Based on the depiction of the minstrels in the Odyssey, we can assume that epics were usually performed as after-dinner entertainment.
Memorization tricks: How did an epic poet memorize such a long narrative? The rhythm of each line helped the poet memorize the lines. The poet reduced the amount of material he needed to memorize and gained time to think on his feet by repeating stock phrases and passages, ranging from short epithets (“bright-eyed Athene”) to standard introductory lines (“as soon as Dawn appeared, fresh and rosy-fingered …”) to longer passages (for example, when a character repeats verbatim what he was told by someone else). Finally, the poet delivered the epic over several nights and even weeks, so he had time during the

day to practice the next section of the epic.


Epic evolution: The epics were probably somewhat loose in form and content as long as they were passed along orally. Each new generation of epic poets added something to the stories he had learned; he strung them together in different ways; he reworked episodes to make them more exciting; he added details that would foreshadow later episodes or build suspense. He might even add details that would flatter his hosts (for example, by providing enough geneology to indicate the host was descended from a character in the

epic). The epics were probably never written down until several hundred years after they first began to be developed. As late as the 500’s B.C. we have an indication that there were several written versions of Homer’s Odyssey floating around. A certain ruler took it upon himself to arrange for the publication of a “definitive” version of the Odyssey.


Epithets - for the Greeks, as for many ancient cultures, names were powerful things. You could give greater praise to a hero or a god by attaching an epithet to the name (instead of Zeus, “All-Powerful Zeus;” instead of Athena, “Bright-Eyed Athena”). If you invoked someone’s name, you increased your ability to get that person to do what you wanted. Therefore it was wise, when dealing with an enemy or a potential enemy, not to divulge your real name.
Foreshadowing - presenting information or events in such a way that the reader is prepared for later events in the story. Foreshadowing “hints at” things to come in the story. When foreshadowing is used well, it makes the story even more fun the second time around. An example of foreshadowing: we are told that Irus looks big and strong but is actually flabby and weak. This description foreshadows Irus’ later defeat in a fight with Odysseus. Another example: the prophet Halitherses warns the suitors that Odysseus will not be gone much longer. This prophecy foreshadows Odysseus’ return.
The Golden Mean - the middle course; the principle of using moderation in all activities; the importance of never doing anything to excess. (“Mean” means “middle.”) The Greeks believed it was important to follow the Golden Mean in all aspects of life. Never reach for more than you can handle. Never fly higher than you are allowed. Never drink or eat to excess. When you win, don’t rub your opponent’s face in it. Enjoy the good things but not too much of them. Know when to stop the fun and move on.
Homer - the author of the two greatest Greek epics, the Illiad and the Odyssey. See “epic” for a discussion of the likely process by which epic poems developed. It is probably more accurate to call Homer the “compiler” of the Odyssey rather than the “author.” Homer took existing tales about Odysseus, arranged them in a masterful sequence, and perfected the brilliant verse in which the story is told. Homer definitely put the mark of creative genius on both the Illiad and the Odyssey; but it seems likely that he owed much of the material in the stories to the epic poets who came before him.
Hubris - excessive pride; originally, hubris meant “believing oneself to be equal to or independent of the gods.” Hubris can be extended to mean any kind of excessive pride. People who overestimate their own abilities, who insult their betters, or who ignore their obligations to the gods or to the less fortunate are guilty of hubris. For the Greeks, hubris is the worst kind of sin, short of incest or murder. Anyone who displays hubris can expect punishment.
Humility - the opposite of hubris - knowing one’s place in the order of things; attending to one’s obligations to the gods. Ashes were a symbol of humility; of remembering that one comes from the earth. (“Humus” means “soil.”) When a humble person entered a house uninvited, he never seated himself at the table until the host invited him. An extraordinary sign of humility might be to seat oneself in the ashes of the hearth.
The Illiad - The Illiad tells the story of the Trojan War. The name comes from Illium, which was the Greek name for Troy. You will read the Illiad as a senior at Gonzaga. The Odyssey is in a sense the “sequel” to the Illiad, since it tells about Odysseus’ struggle to get home after the Trojan War.
Irony - see Dramatic Irony or Verbal Irony.
Libations - A libation was a liquid offering made to a god. Libations of blood might be made after the sacrifice of an animal. Another popular kind of libation was the offering of wine (essentially a toast) before or during a meal. Notice in the Odyssey how some feasters find many excuses to make libations.
Obedience - The complex structure of Greek society included wealthy property owners (the wealthiest of whom might be regarded as “kings” within their particular region or island); lesser freemen (who owned some land and property); servants and slaves. Slaves were treated like members of the family; they were often obtained by the owner when he captured them during war. Servants and slaves were expected to be loyal and obedient to their masters. Disloyalty on the part of a servant or slave was a terrible sin. Just as the gods punished humans for hubris, so masters could punish servants for disloyalty.
Oracle - See Prophets and Prophecy.
Promises and Vows - The Greeks believed that everyone was bound to follow the solemn promises and vows that they made. Even gods, were absolutely bound to keep their “Stygian oaths” (oaths made upon the waters of the River Styx).
Prophets and Prophecy - The Greeks, like all cultures, were fascinated with the possibility of predicting the future. There were two ways to try to discern one’s future (one’s “fate”): one could make a pilgrimage to an oracle (such as the oracle at the temple of Apollo in Delphi); or one could consult a prophet such as Teiresias (see below). Prophets were persons whom the gods had granted special powers of foresight. Two techniques used by prophets to foretell the future were bird-lore (symbolically interpreting the actions of birds) and the examination of a recently-sacrificed animal’s entrails (their appearance and arrangement had symbolic meanings).
Punishment - Punishment of wrongdoers in Greek myths was often shockingly cruel by our standards. The Greeks believed that no one committed wrong “by accident.” Sin was the result of a conscious choice by the sinner. The wrongdoer knew what was in store when he or she decided to do wrong; therefore it was justifiable to mete out harsh punishment on the wrongdoer. The harshness of the punishment usually corresponded to the harshness of the crime.
Servants - see Obedience.
Spoils of War - Ancient warriors were not paid for their service. They “paid themselves” by taking whatever they could get from their enemies – treasure, precious art or metalwork, servants, slaves – even wives. This sort of attacking and pillaging generally was not seen as sinful by the Greeks. There were limits, though: those who became too greedy while pillaging were going against the golden mean. If they didn’t “get out while the coast was clear” (literally), they might suffer a counterattack from their enemies.
Once you had gathered your treasure and were out of a “war” situation (this was vaguely defined), you then had a right to your treasure. It would be a severe crime for someone to take it from you at that point.
Teiresias - the greatest of the Greek prophets. One god had punished him by taking away his sight; another god had compensated by giving Teiresias the gift of prophecy. One of Teiresias’ great frustrations is that he is almost always ignored by the person to whom he gives his prophecy.
Temptation - the Greeks, like many other cultures, were fascinated by the human tendency toward curiosity and temptation. Icarus’ temptation is to fly up higher and higher so that he can see the heavens; he is punished for not resisting this temptation. In the story of Orpheus, he is allowed to bring his deceased wife back from Hades, provided that he doesn’t look back to see if she following during the hike out of of the underworld. Orpheus can’t resist the temptation to look back and see if his wife is there. The instant he turns around, she plummets back into Hades – this time forever.
Treasure - see Spoils of War.
Trickery - the Greeks loved displays of cleverness and trickery. If a hero used trickery to get out of a tight situation, this was considered admirable. Likewise, the use of trickery to teach an evil person a lesson was completely acceptable. However, it was wrong to use trickery to avoid carrying out one’s obligations.
Verbal Irony - expressing an idea or feeling in words which carry the exact opposite meaning. A student might use verbally irony in saying, “Certainly the teachers at Gonzaga are doing everything in their power to make sure that students have as little homework as possible.” What the student actually means is, “Teachers at Gonzaga love to pile on the homework.” Verbal irony can be detected from the speaker’s tone of voice or from the surrounding context.
You will rarely hear a character using verbal irony in the Odyssey. By and large, these characters – good or bad – say exactly what they are thinking without disguising it in any way.
Xenia (hospitality) - welcoming and caring for guests and strangers, even beggars. A requirement for all Greeks. To mistreat or ignore a stranger in need was to risk offending Zeus, who often traveled about in the disguise of a beggar in order to look for people who did not practice xenia. In addition to feeding and sheltering a guest, the good host would have his servants bathe the guest (see below); the host might show off his wealth by giving presents, offering a special feast, providing athletic or musical entertainment, or even providing horses and provisions for the guest’s subsequent travels.
Under the rules of xenia, the guest had certain obligations as well. Of course the guest was required to show gratitude and to provide news from the places he had traveled through. But the guest also was required to refrain from taking undue advantage of his host. To be inhospitable to a stranger was a terrible sin, but to take advantage of a host’s xenia out of sheer greed was an equally grave sin.




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