Gulf War Air Power Survey
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- Deployment Phase
- Atlantic Bridge
- Figure 38 Atlantic Bridge Air Refueling
- Pacific Bridge
- Figure 39 Tanker Beddown in the
- Follow-on Deployment Phase
- Desert Storm
Initial Response Air refueling operations began before Desert Shield. On 21 July 1990, transmissions between the U.S. Embassy in Abu Dhabi and the U.S. State Department requested that two SAC KC-135 tankers be assigned to refuel UAE Mirage 2000 fighters beginning the morning of 22 July 1990. The UAE planned to fly combat air patrols and protect UAE oil wells from possible Iraqi aircraft attacks. U.S. tankers were needed to extend sortie durations and were perceived by the UAE as a non-provocative deterrence to attack.386 Notification and deployment orders were sent almost simultaneously; within two hours of the initial notice, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) sent a draft deployment order to SAC placing SAC's tankers under the operational control of U.S. Commander-in-Chief, Central Command (USCINCCENT). While SAC agreed with placing conventional bombers under CINCCENT, it opposed CINCCENT operational control for its tankers. The draft order involved deploying two KC-135R tankers and approximately fifty people from RAF Mildenhall to the airfield at Al Dhafra. Although qualified as a bare base operation, SAC tankers routinely deployed to unimproved bases for short-term operations or exercises. SAC's main concern was the lack of airfield informationa problem for all major commands in Desert Shield. The mode of coordinating with UAE surface-to-air missile units, the legality of refueling foreign government aircraft, and methods of providing early warnings of hostile air attack were also of concern. The final JCS deployment order was received on 23 July 1990 and the operation was called Ivory Justice. The U.S. Embassy in Abu Dhabi suggested that SAC switch to using KC-10s to refuel the Mirage because the KC-10's long hose and soft basket placed less strain on the Mirage 2000's probe. Time was not available to make the change, which actually proved unnecessary. Three Mirage 2000s refueled successfully on 31 July and 1 August 1990; the exercise was terminated on 2 August when Iraq invaded Kuwait.387 Deployment Phase On 2 August 1990, the Secretary of Defense directed deployment of U.S. forces to support military operations in the CENTCOM AOR. JCS immediately directed deployment of two KC-10s to Diego Garcia to join two KC-135s there on an exercise. Unlike the earlier draft order, this order allowed SAC to retain operational control of the tankers. Another order directed CENTAF to conduct execution planning for deploying one RC-135 and three KC-10 aircraft to the CENTCOM AOR. En route refueling support was required for the quick reaction module, which included fighters and Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft. SAC recommended against early JCS basing options at Riyadh and Dhahran because basing tankers there would place them within range of Iraqi missiles and aircraft. Jeddah New was suggested for tanker basing, since it was farther from Iraq.388 CENTCOM agreed, but CENTAF prevailed, citing Riyadh as its headquarters location and the site of Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) tanker and E-3 operations.389 Brigadier General Caruana was designated as Commander Strategic Forces (STRATFOR) and departed with the initial module of forces to lead the SAC contingent in the CENTCOM AOR. SAC anticipated massive MAC air refueling requirements as well as fighter movement refuelings. As it turned out, MAC decided to make an enroute stop in Europe and ground refuel rather than air refuel. This action eased the tanker commitment to support TAC fighter deployments, which primarily called for non-stop CONUS-to-Southwest Asia flights requiring multiple refuelings.390 By 8 August, force deployments were scheduled through C+40 (first day deployment commenced plus forty days). Initially, eighteen tankers were to be in the AOR, which was far fewer than planned in the latest draft of SAC OPLAN 1002. In reality, OPLAN 1002 was never used, but air refueling planners at the time were concerned that the number of tankers being considered would be inadequate.391 On 9 August, JCS designated the deployment as Desert Shield, and the classification of operations was downgraded to Secret. This date marked the beginning of the tanker Atlantic Bridge, which would adjust support levels to match the fluctuating rate of deployment. Air Bridges In coordination with USTRANSCOM, air bridges were established on both Atlantic and Pacific routes to support CENTCOM deployment and to provide logistic support for SAC. Initially, approximately one and one-half fighter squadrons a day used the Atlantic Bridge from the CONUS to the AOR. ANG, AFRES, and active duty tanker aircraft provided refueling. Also, some MAC aircraft and straggler fighters on the way to rejoin their units were refueled along the bridge. Maintenance and support personnel, security police, fire fighters, communicators, and other personnel were deployed to support sustained tanker operations. The KC-135A model was used extensively to free the KC-135R model for the Saudi peninsula. The Atlantic Bridge network freed MAC airlift aircraft to move other cargo and units as tanker organic lift capacity was employed to the maximum.392 Atlantic Bridge The Eighth Air Force operated the Atlantic Bridge; its bases in Europe included RAF Mildenhall, England; Lajes AB, Azores; Zaragoza and Moron ABs, Spain; Mont de Marsan, France; Malpensa, Italy; Incirlik AB, Turkey; and Hellenikon and Andravida, Greece. The bridge was the primary deployment route for all U.S. aircraft requiring aerial refueling. The number of tankers in place afforded the flexibility to adjust refueling capability to deployment volume. Bridge tankers at bases along the route launched on short round-robin missions to refuel deploying aircraft. KC-135s or other KC-10s over the Atlantic and Mediterranean would refuel KC-10s acting as the escort refueling tankers for deploying fighter aircraft formations; the refueled KC-10s in turn would refuel fighters in the formation (chicks-in-tow as such formations are called in the air refueling community because of the resemblance to a mother hen and her chicks).393 Figure 38 Atlantic Bridge Air Refueling Basing problems created an exception to the short round-robin missions performed by the KC-135s in the Atlantic Bridge. Because Eastern Mediterranean basing was unavailable, KC-10s out of Moron and Zaragoza were substituted to provide support for fighters transiting the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The sortie duration for these missions was from seven and one-half to nine hours; the substitutions continued until a base was established at Cairo West. Planning for eastbound deployments called for tanker task forces at Lajes, Moron, and Souda ABs and at Cairo East on the eastern end of the bridge. The deployment would allow support of collocated B-52s and naval aircraft operating from carriers in the Red Sea if hostilities erupted. Early changes brought in Mildenhall AB and dropped Souda AB because it had insufficient ramp space. These actions created a gap in the middle of the Mediterranean leg of the Atlantic Bridge and put an additional burden on Spain- and Egypt-based tankers to provide refueling support over the Mediterranean Sea. The use of the dual-role KC-10s increased and MAC's decision to land in Europe and refuel also relieved the pressure on the eastern span of the Atlantic Bridge.394 Fluctuating basing rights caused a domino effect in assignments for and numbers of aircraft. Moron, Spain became available in late August 1990, but before Desert Shield, was in drawdown status with minimum U.S. presence. Initially, ANG KC-135E tankers were deployed there, but they were replaced by KC-10s in late September to provide deep Mediterranean air refuelings. When the war began in January 1991, Spain agreed to base B-52s at Moron, and the KC-10s moved to Zaragoza and RAF Mildenhall in early February. When the war was over, the B‑52Gs departed Moron on 21 March and KC-10s returned to assist with Atlantic Bridge redeployment operations.395 SAC continued to stress the need for tankers in Egyptif not at Cairo East, then in Cairo West, a remote military airfield. The lack of a Cairo base for tankers forced more of limited KC-10 and KC-135R tanker assets to Atlantic Bridge operations. Also, OPLANs called for KC-10s in the MAC channel, and MAC airlift clearly was extended. Release of KC‑10s for airlift duty would be limited by the lack of KC-135 bases in the eastern Mediterranean. As a consequence, SAC also asked JCS to consider as possible TTF operating locations Akrotiri on Cyprus; Incirlik in Turkey; Hellenikon in Greece; Antalya in Turkey; and Sigonella in Italy.396 Constant coordination problems occurred involving multiple commands and levels of the State Department. Tanker Task Force Europe (ETTF) regularly used Hellenikon AB for fuel and weather diversion and for supporting RC-135 operations. Hellenikon AB shares the runway with Athens International Airport in Greece. U.S. operations at Hellenikon were scheduled to be shut down and the airfield turned back to the Greek government by 30 June 1991. As part of the Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement, U.S. Air Forces Europe's (USAFE's) host operational support would end 1 February 1991. The European Command (EUCOM) plan was to move tankers to Andravida, a Greek air base west of Athens. There was much concern about U.S. operations leaving Hellenikon in the middle of the Gulf War, and Headquarters SAC directed that no changes be made before logistical and operational issues were resolved. The war ended in late February, and the tankers adjusted to Andravida; five KC-135Rs supported redeployment bridge taskings until late April 1991.397 Over time, efforts by the Services and the State Department to maximize the tanker basing in Spain were very successful. At first, a Status of Forces Agreement limited permanently based tanker aircraft in Spain although more were allowed for short training periods. Operations were conducted from Zaragoza and Moron ABs, and less frequently from Torrejon and Rota. The number of tankers needed for the Atlantic Bridge, coupled with the number of aircraft stopping en route to the AOR, motivated negotiations for increasing the ceiling. Increases came slowly. An initial increase of KC-135Es at Moron AB was allowed, and their capabilities over those of KC-135As gave basing in the bridge the flexibility to move forward to the AOR, if required, to support combat aircraft. The next increment raised permanent tanker basing in Spain even further. Tankers making en route stops were not included in the count, which gave additional flexibility. Although KC-10s used Rota originally, safety considerations required that tankers not use Rota unless absolutely necessary. [DELETED]398 The commercial airport at Malpensa in northern Italy was 340 nautical miles north of the planned B-52 tracks. It became a beddown for as many as twelve KC-10s providing pre- and post-strike air refueling for the B-52s. Operations at Malpensa began on 9 February 1991, and the Italian military provided 150 troops for security. There were many difficulties to overcome. Fuel was limited. Winter operations required de-icing of aircraft, and military aircraft were low priority compared to commercial flights. On at least one occasion, tankers were late because of de-icing delays and missed their assigned air refueling. As a consequence, Malpensa was one of the first bases shut down after the Gulf War. France was also cooperative and was one of the first countries to offer basing rights for tankers. The first U.S. KC-135R arrived in France on 7 February 1991 and was the first U.S. aircraft based there since 1966. Up to ten KC-135s were based at Mont de Marsan, a French Air Force base in southwestern France, but KC-10As could not use Mont de Marsan because of taxiway obstructions. The KC-135Rs based there provided pre- and post-strike air refueling for B-52G sorties. Other support included maintenance equipment, technicians, and translators. On one occasion, an engine tester from another base was flown in via a French KC-135R. Mont de Marsan operations were concluded in mid‑March.399 In addition to Atlantic Bridge operations, RAF Mildenhall staged tankers deploying from Dyess AFB in Texas to Incirlik in Turkey were held at RAF Mildenhall awaiting diplomatic clearance. While Incirlik was an established USAFE base routinely supporting ETTF operations, ongoing diplomatic actions delayed deployments. When hostilities began, tankers joined the Joint Task Force (JTF) (known as Proven Force). SAC retained operational control of the aircraft and tactical control passed to USAFE. This was the first time SAC tanker's participated in a composite force; JTF Proven Force has been described as an early example of the United States Air Force composite wing concept.400 Pacific Bridge The Pacific Bridge was not established and used as planned, since most deployment operations used the Atlantic Bridge. The Pacific Bridge mainly supported tanker, bomber, and airlift traffic en route to Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. Bridge operating locations were Hickam AFB in Hawaii, Andersen AFB in Guam, and Diego Garcia. Planning had also included Singapore, Malaysia, and Clark AB in the Philippines, but these locations were not used except for weather or fuel diversions.401 The Marine AV-8s from Iwakuni in Japan were originally (OPLAN 1002-88) to deploy to the AOR using Pacific-based tankers. Also, the Harrier was only certified for refueling with KC-10s. Because of logistical constraints, the Marines requested that they deploy East through the CONUS and over the Atlantic Bridge. The deployment of twenty B-52s to Diego Garcia was the primary aircraft movement over the Pacific Bridge, and subsequent operations were designed for logistical support of the bombers and tankers from Andersen AB.402 A logistics shuttle called SAC Desert Express (not to be confused with the Airlift operation Desert Express, flown with C-141s from Charleston AFB) was started in mid-August 1990. KC-135As moved cargo and personnel from CONUS bases to Castle AFB in California. The SAC Desert Express then went from Castle AFB through Hickam AFB to Andersen AFB. From there, KC-135R or KC-10 aircraft replaced KC-135Asthe distance-limited KC-135As could not fly Hickam to Diego because of the number of miles involved.403 The final number of tankers committed to Desert Shield far exceeded the requirements specified in the “on-the-shelf” OPLANs. Twenty-one bases in twelve foreign countries were used as tanker beddown locations for over 300 tankers. To make it even more challenging, six of the bases in the AOR were bare base locations, i.e., essentially a runway, fuel, and water. Basic support such as cooks, security police, medical personnel, and civil engineers were flown in and literally built the base facilities from the ground up. Supply personnel, transporters, and maintainers were then needed to accomplish day‑to‑day activities supporting flying operations. Places to work, eat, and sleep were built while flight operations continued. During Phase I in Desert Shield, the requirement for tankers remained fairly constant at 115 KC-135s. As additional forces deployed in Phase II for the air campaign, tanker requirements more than doubled. Then in February when twenty more B-52s deployed to Moron and Fairford, additional tankers were deployed. The map at Figure 39 shows the final beddown locations of the tanker force in the AOR. Figure 39 Tanker Beddown in the AOR 14
Jeddah New supported the largest deployed tanker operation. An ANG Colonel, appointed as commander of the 1701 Provisional Air Refueling Wing, led a mixed SAC, ANG, and AFRES unita classic example of integrating the Reserve and ANG with the active force to create a total force package. Centrally located King Khalid International, a large, new commercial airport on the outskirts of Riyadh, was home to the 1703d Air Refuel Wing (AREFW). U.S., French, and British tanker forces shared the facilities. Riyadh was the first base to be used by tankers after JCS deployment began. It was first utilized by four KC-10s and became the 1700th Strategic Wing, home of KC-135Qs and RC-135s. After the war, 15 KC-135Rs remained as the follow-on tanker force. At the invitation of the UAE, two KC-135Rs were based at Al Dhafra during Exercise Ivory Justice. During Desert Storm, Al Dhafra was shared by CENTAF and Italian forces and accommodated a maximum of seven KC-135Rs. It was home to the 1705th Air Refuel Squadron (AREFS). Cairo West basing rights were secured on 27 September 1990, and, initially, accommodated three KC-135Rs, succeeded by fifteen KC‑135Es before hostilities. Flight clearances throughout Egypt were a problem during operations, and the likelihood of terrorist activity against the tanker beddown location there was assessed as very high. Seeb was home to the 1702d AREFW, which supported fifteen KC-135Rs and ten KC-10s. Seeb also supported Navy operations in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, and most of the offloaded JP-5 fuel came from this location. The politics of war came to the forefront in numerous situations. For example, on two separate occasions the Government of Oman requested that tankers move for short periods (1-4 days) during Omani National Days and Air Force Day. Masirah was the beddown location for five KC-135Rs, increased to ten. MAC was host at Masirah with C-130 operations. Dubai was the home of the 1713d AREFW, and operations were totally ANG. Since Dubai is a commercial airport, close coordination with local authorities was required. The 1712th AREFW, a composite ANG unit, was established at Abu Dhabi in December 1990. After initially deploying to Jeddah New, the wing moved to their final operating location in January 1991 before start of hostilities. Diego Garcia was unique in location and mission. It was the only site with a SAC presence and prepositioned materials before 2 August 1990. Tankers at this base were used solely for B-52 support. Communications capability was extremely limited, which contributed to many difficulties. Follow-on Deployment Phase As USCENTCOM AOR combatant requirements grew, STRATFOR continuously tailored tanker requirements to support planned offensive operations. The final deployment position was 209 tankers (179 KC-135s and 30 KC-10s) to be in place in the AOR no later than 15 January 1991. The crew ratio in the event of hostilities was also established as 1.50 for the KC-135 and 2.0 for the KC-10.404 The final Desert Shield action for the tanker force was bedding down twenty-four KC-10s in the AOR. The organic lift capability of these aircraft was used again to support SAC's final buildup of aircraft and personnel. At the start of Desert Storm, SAC had committed over 300 tankers to the AOR, Turkey, and the bridges.405 Desert Storm When Desert Storm officially began at 0300, 17 January 1990, in the AOR, tankers had already offloaded fuel for strike, reconnaissance, command and control, and other combat support mission aircraft. (Refuelings had been accomplished hours earlier for B-52s en route from outside the AOR to their targets in Iraq.) KC-135s from Jeddah flew at an altitude of 3,000 feet while refueling F-15Es scheduled to strike fixed Scud launching sites in Western Iraq. The low-level refuelings were necessary because the F-15s had to penetrate low and fast to surprise their targets. These were the only low-level refuelings planned for the air campaign. The rest of the schedule was executed with little change, and 296 of the planned 299 refueling sorties were flown. The operation was a success in spite of more than a little concern over air space saturation. The concern remained following a 6 January airspace saturation exercise highlighting the tremendous task of air space management and deconfliction of air space that were natural products of air operations of this magnitude. Airspace saturation will be discussed later in this chapter.406 The [DELETED]-based B-52s, which flew 795 combat sorties during Desert Storm, were some of the few aircraft not requiring refueling on the way to targets. All of the other aircraft that required air refueling used the air refueling track structure, which was oriented to satisfy several objectives (See Figure 40 below). First, the long parallel tracks beginning in central Saudi Arabia and ending at the Iraqi border were positioned to refuel combat aircraft moving toward the center of Iraq. Second, initial tanker Directory: sgp -> library sgp -> Sgp country Programme Strategy for op6 sgp -> Itu-d study groups sgp -> Internship with Congressional Campaign Exploratory Committee — Only 4 spots left! sgp -> Using Well Logs in the Petroleum Industry sgp -> Telecommunication development bureau itu-d study groups Download 5.55 Mb. Share with your friends:
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