Tamara DELUIGI, University of Bern, Switzerland

During the 19th century the question how children who deviated from a certain norm should be educated was a central and persistent topic in the field of education. The schools at this time had to face the problem that they had to create solutions for the problematic children and develop special forms of schooling and adapted contents of teaching. In 1898 the headmaster of the “Hilfsschule” (special needs school) in Bremen/ Germany A. Wintermann published a sumptuous collection of data from numerous schools in Germany and Switzerland as well as some single examples of other European countries which were either specialized on children with “special needs” or primary schools that provide different forms of more or less institutionalized practices to deal with non-conforming children. His intention was to present an overview of the institutional situation and educational possibilities to deal with “problematic”, “abnormal” or “soft-headed” pupils. Besides the information about the schools, their organization, school enrolment and the employed teachers he also collected data about the pupils, their behavior, symptoms and family background. This paper presents an analysis and evaluation of this tabulated set of data relevant to the questions presented below and compares those aspects between the listed countries to describe eventual similarities or differences in the focused development. The paper centers two main-sets of questions: Referred to Wintermanns survey, what kind of institutionalized “special-education” can be determined at the end of the 19th century and on what kind of tradition do they build on? And what criteria are relevant to segregate or displace children in those forms of schooling? Furthermore, the paper seeks to point out the closely related aspects of teacher education which gained significance by the institutionalization of the new modes of schooling. The question will be answered if teachers who worked with the so called “soft-headed” and “abnormal” passed a specific training or course to develop corresponding competences. If so the paper analyses how these courses were organized and what the contents of teaching were about. The “raw data” of Wintermanns publication will be incorporated into the surrounding educational discourses and contexts of the different countries.

From Geneva to Belo Horizonte: the model of European special classes in Brazil, in the 1930’s

Adriana ARAUJO PEREIRA BORGES, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil; Regina Helena FREITAS-CAMPOS, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil

Primary school regulations of the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, issued in 1927 included the organization of homogeneous classrooms by intellectual levels as mandatory. Their implementation started with the arrival in Belo Horizonte of the Russian psychologist Helena Antipoff, who assumed the direction of the laboratory of psychology of the local Teachers’ College and initiated studies aiming at the measurement of children’s mental development using psychological tests. At the same time, special classes, present in Europe since the end of the nineteenth century, were also established. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the process of implementation of those special classes as disclosed in the periodical Infância Excepcional, published in the bulletins of the Public Education and Health Secretariat of Minas Gerais government during the 1930’s and 1940’s, and in other articles published about the theme at the time. It also intends to verify how the special classes were organized in the Brazilian context, under Helena Antipoff’s guidance. Born in Russia, Helena Antipoff lived in France and was a trainee in Binet`s laboratory in 1911, and then proceeded to Geneva to attend the Jean Jacques Rousseau Institute (1912-1914), where she later became a researcher and educator as Édouard Claparède’s assistant (1926-1929). The hypothesis is that the multicultural formation of Helena Antipoff influenced the way in which the special classes were setup in Minas Gerais and, eventually in Brazil, contributing for the creation of an original model aiming at the treatment and education of handicapped children that was latter disseminated in the whole country. At the same time, the context in which she was inserted influenced the way Helena Antipoff systematized her model for the special classes and proposed the education of exceptional children in a rural school, the Fazenda do Rosário. Present historiography of science considers that knowledge has to become local to function as knowledge, in a process of hybridization. It is from this standpoint that the implementation of special classes in Brazil will be discussed, more specifically in Belo Horizonte. Although deeply marked by her trajectory in Europe, from which she brings significant contributions, it is only from the knowledge of the Minas Gerais cultural context and its specific characteristics that Antipoff could propose an alternative to special classes: the rural school.

Test Prime-circulation of knowledge in education between France and Brazil in the early 20th century

Carolina Silva BANDEIRA DE MELO, École de Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France; Regina Helena de FREITAS-CAMPOS, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil

The appropriation of French psychology applied to education in Brazil is analyzed, based on the adaptation of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test by psychologist and educator Helena Antipoff (1892-1974). In 1911, Antipoff was a trainee at the Laboratory of Psychology founded by Alfred Binet at the Sorbonne, and participated in the first essays for measuring intelligence in children at the time. In 1931, as the chair of the Laboratory of Psychology at the Belo Horizonte Teachers College, in Brazil, she made one of the first adaptations of the Binet-Simon tests for Brazilian children, aiming at the assessment and measurement of children’s and youngsters’s intellectual capacities. The instrument was named 'Test Prime'. Three groups were evaluated: a group of illiterate children between 6 and 8 years old, a group of fourth graders aged between 11 and 12, and a group of illiterate girls working in domestic service. From the results of her Test Prime, Helena Antipoff obtained a database to develop a concept of intelligence that was different from what she had learned in Binet’s Laboratory in Paris, since it included the influence of social environment in the development of cognition. The influence of Binet’s work on Antipoff’s practices can still be perceived when, following the prescriptions made by the 1927 Regulations of Primary Education issued by the state government in 1927, she proposed the organization of special classes for retarded children in the same model recommended by Binet to French schools in the beginning of the 20th century, with the introduction of “mental orthopedics” exercises and of specific programs of study for the development of basic skills in language and arithmetic. Alfred Binet is one of the ten most cited authors in the five volumes of the Coletânea das Obras Escritas (Collected Works) of Helena Antipoff. Contemporary researchers of the history of science have been privileging the study of works in which can be identified the emergence of an hybrid knowledge, originated by the exchanges made between different researchers worldwide. In Antipoff´s formation a scientific attitude and the belief that through science it would be possible to solve problems and improve education were emphasized. This was a lesson that she brought from the contact with researchers from other countries, including the work of Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in Paris.

William Maclure and Pestalozzian Education at New Harmony, Indians: The Trans-Atlantic Transfer of an Educational Theory (1818-1830)

The paper examines Maclure's (1763-1840) selective transfer of elements of Pestalozzi's educational theory and method to Robert Owen's utopian experiment at New Harmony, Indiana. It analyzes: (1) the trans-Atlantic encounters of three educational actors - Pestalolzzi, Maclure, and Owen; (2) Maclure's scientific and utilitarian rationale for selecting and implementing some but not other elements of Pestalozzi's theory; (3) the problems raised by selectivity; (4) conflicts between Maclure's focused utilitarianism and Owen's communitarian socialism; (5) issues about the broader diffusion of the method. While engaged in geological explorations in Switzerland, Maclure visited Pestalozzi's institutes at Burgdorf and Yverdon. He was impressed with the possiblities of the method for educating the working classes in useful applied scientific knowledge and skills. Thie utilitarian education would improve their economic as well as political condition. Maclure subsidized the immigration of Joseph Neef and other Pestalozzian educators from Europe to the United States so they could introduce the method. Maclure joined his Pestalozzian educators with Owen's utopian experiment on the American frontier. Maclure's introduction was selective in its emphasis on Pestalozzi's sensory and empirical epistemology ande object lesson but neglected the theory's broader humanistic aspects. Maclure's utilitarian and scientific emmphases generated conficts with Owen's utopianism that relate to general issues about education and social change. Although Maclure established a school press and a center in which educators and scientists could interact, he failed to adequately institionalize his version of Pestalozzian pedagogy in schools and teacher preparation.

The educator who applied the social education conceptions of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Georg Kerschensteiner in Turkey: Ismail Hakkı Tonguç

The 18th century Europe was struggling for equality with the impact of the Age of Enlightenment. The mottos liberty, equality, and fraternity, which were realized in France in 1789, had their effects around Europe in a short time. The most significant of these rights was the right to receive education. Being a country with similar political and economic inconsistencies, in Turkey these problems had their most severe effects on the public. The education ideology of the country which struggled for life-or-death at the start of the 20th century developed as public education and social education during its construction. In this sense, one of the educators to support the ideas of Pestalozzi and Kerschensteiner on public education and industrial school and to establish these ideas in Turkey by his translations is Ismail Hakkı Tonguç. His difference from other educators who made translations and contributed to the country is that he was the one to put these ideas into practice. To compensate for this deficiency, in 1935 Minister of Culture Saffet Arıkan appointed Ismail Hakkı Tonguç as the General Director of Elementary Education (1935-1946). There were many reasons to choose Tonguç for this duty. Tonguç was a graduate of Istanbul Male Teachers School in 1918 and he had attended the seminars on teacher education and work education given at the Ettlingen Teachers School and Leipzig Pedagogy Institute in Germany. Between 1925-1938 he was sent to Europe (Germany, Italy, Swiss, France, England, Bulgaria, Hungary and Austria) several times by the Ministry of Culture in order to study rural education in these countries. He also wrote and translated books about the training of village teachers and instructional method. As a result of these influences, Tonguç prepared the regulations for his planned Village Institutes. He also presented a proposal and the justification for the creation of the Village Institutes in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in 1935. Based on the data of the national census of 1935, only 23.3 per cent of the males and 8.2 per cent of the females were literate. Though attendance at the elementary level was compulsory by law, and 80 per cent of the children in urban areas were being educated, only 26 per cent of those in villages were able to attend school. He founded the Village Institutes along with Hasan Ali Yücel. In this study, within the scope of Pestalozzi’s and Kerschensteiner's ideas of social education and industrial school, we will seek to evaluate the applications in Turkey based on Tonguç and the main sources.

A Time for Reform - Pestalozzi's Immediate Impact on Education Policies in Switzerland, Prussia and England

Niko GÄRTNER, Institute of Education, London / Hansa Gymnasium, Hamburg, United Kingdom / Germany

The early internationalisation of education needed impulses of pioneers like Swiss reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), who remains one of the great visionaries in the History of Education. His work had an immediate impact on educational debates in and beyond Europe; hugely influencing what we now know as nursery and primary education. This paper assesses how his local educational knowledge and practices influenced policies in differing societies during the period of revolution and reform that was the early nineteenth century. The comparison of the reception of his ideas in Prussia, England and his native Switzerland focuses on the historical context rather than the content of Pestalozi’s work - his varying impact is used to exemplify the different stages of nation building in Europe. The paper offers explanations why Pestalozzi’s revolutionary ideas made it into mainstream policy in conservative Prussia, while having only a minor effect on policies in progressive England and Switzerland. It concludes that the historic moment is more relevant for the success of reform ideas than their intrinsic quality.

Circulation, appropriation and dissemination of pedagogical ideas of the New School Movement in the twentieth century: the (in)visibility of José Scaramelli

The theoretical study has as its object the pedagogical ideas in circulation among the twentieth century, especially in the movement of circulation and appropriation of the ideas of the New School in Brazil. The collection "Brazilian New School," by José Scaramelli, was published in 1931 in Brazil, containing five volumes. In each of the volumes, there is a careful appropriation of ideas of the New School, from which, the author proposed to renew the schools and teaching new school ideas in Brazil. It is also during this period, the editorial production in Brazil takes shape and collections, especially school of character, gain popularity in teacher training courses, and appropriation for the movement Brazilian authors and ideas coming from the European and American New School movement. The interest in such a character in our history, whether by their inclusion in collections of publications aimed at renewing the minds of teachers in Brazil in the period, even these volumes have been found in the Old Normal School of San Carlos. Moreover, adds to this interest, the fact that (in) visibility of this author in research and outstanding personalities of history education in Brazil. The theoretical reference used in this study refer to the individual works of José Scaramelli as a primary and secondary sources that allow us to understand this movement of the New Schools in Brazil and abroad, among which we highlight: Scaramelli, Monarca, Valdemarin, Saviani, Depaepe, Le Goff. The methodological procedures are guided work in the history of educational ideas, under which point the following categories of analysis advocated by Saviani (2007): The concrete character of the history of education, the prospect of long during, investigation analytic-synthetic of sources, the articulation between the universal and the singular and, finally, the principle of current historical research. The aim of the research gained to understand the circulation and appropriation of the ideas of international new school ideas by Brazilian authors, as well as down to specific objectives, identify the key concepts and references appropriated by José Scaramelli and how the author appropriates and disclose in its collection. Partial results have shown little research on this author in Brazil, and shows how the New School movement in Brazil was aware of the publication and circulation of fresh ideas in the field of education.

Internationalization and glocalization of progressive educational practices: the case study of the Spanish schoolteacher Justa Freire

Maria del Mar DEL POZO, University of Alcalá (Madrid), Spain

In 1925 the eleven members of the teaching staff of the school "Cervantes" from Madrid got an official grant for travelling in Europe during two months. They could visit the best known new schools of France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria, they were attending the third Conference of the New Education Fellowship that took place in Heidelberg and they participated in the Summer Course of the Institute Jean Jacques Rousseau in Geneva. All the schoolteachers were writing daily diaries of their experience and their personal observations. In this paper I will analyze, in first term, the hidden agenda of this trip that so well planned, in the light of the global context of the New Education Fellowship networks. In second term, I will study the discussions and thoughts of the group after listening the lectures of the leading psychologists and educationalists, like Carl Gustav Jung, Jean Piaget, Edouard Claparède or Adolphe Ferrière. In third place, I will find out the changes in the educational practices of the "Cervantes" the year after its teachers returned from their study trip. One of these travelling schoolteachers was Justa Freire. Together with her colleague Elisa López Velasco they were the only two women in the group and the only two women that were teachers in an state school for boys in Spain. I will follow the trip through her eyes, using as main sources her diaries and agendas. I will try to analyze the influence that this pedagogical trip had in the future work of Justa Freire as schoolteacher and headmistress of a state school for boys and girls in the thirties and in the construction of her pedagogical discourse about the theory and practice of the education. This experience will be considered as a case study for discussing the processes of circulation and appropriation of educational ideas and practices, the links between the internationalization and the nationalization of the progressive ideals and its transfer to the local areas. The "Cervantes" was an experimental school and was visited by thousands of village schoolteachers, that had learnt in its classrooms a peculiar model of pedagogical progressivism adapted to the Spanish context. The "Alfredo Calderón", the school that was led by Justa Freire, had experienced the tensions between the "old" traditional Spanish schoolteachers and the "new" ones, and it can be considered an interesting scenario for studying the difficulties in the implementation of the progressive educational practices. The Spanish Civil War was the moment in which Justa Freire, together with Ángel Llorca, the headmaster of the school "Cervantes", could developed and educational experience closely connected with the European ones that they knew from their 1925 trip, an experience that was considered in the pages of Pour l'Ère Nouvelle as the symbol of the new education in the Republican Spain and as opposed to the "new" education of the Francoist Spain.