J І сумський державний І j університет б іблютека

The gaining of independence by this country in 1991 awoke an unknown before increase in the employment of both oral and written translation, which became needed for the establishment of interna­tional relations with the rest of the world. These two types of transla­tion provided the newly independent country in its first years with the mass of the official international texts of diplomatic and legal nature (treaties, agreements, memoranda, etc). Due to the active employ­ment of written translation and translation in viva voce Ukraine could successfully establish and maintain its international ties and good relations with the outside world as a whole and not only with the countries that recognized it.

The required level of the necessary international relations with the help of translation as well as interpretation had been achieved by Ukraine already in 1993-1994.

It was not so, however, with the artistic translation. The eco­nomic and financial crisis that followed after the collapse of the Soviet Union forced all major publishing houses of Ukraine to temporarily or completely suspend their operations. As a result the belles-lettres translation in state publishing houses during the second half of the 1990's came practically to a standstill.

The only functioning organ except some small capacity private publishing houses, which continued to publish the works of foreign literatures in Ukrainian translation unabated at the close of the twentieth century remained the Vsesvit journal. During its forty-two years of active and fruitful participation in the literary process of Ukraine the journal has succeeded in publishing thousands of belles-lettres works - novels, narratives, short stories and poetic works of classics and promising foreign authors, poets and playwrights from one hundred and ten foreign languages. The Ukrainian reader has received mostly high quality artistic translations of works by many foreign classics

and mostly prominent contemporary authors/poets, whose works have never been published in Ukrainian before or which were published only in shortened versions. Hence, our readers had an opportunity to get acquainted with the latest achievements of most national literatures of the world. Beginning from its rebirth in 1958, the Vsesvit journal had regularly published apart from belles-lettres works of mainly noted authors, poets and playwrights also several adventure and detective stories of all known authors from European, Latin and North American, Asian, Australian and African countries. Among the translators, who have greately contributed to the recognition of the journal as a reliable source of foreign literature and who are partly obliged to it as their nursery, which made them later known in Ukrainian literature, were M.Pinchevs'kyi, V.Mytrofanov, V.Pasichna (a prolific translator from Czech, Slovak and Polish literatures) and some others. Closely collaborated with the journal in some years also our well-known translators M.Lukash, H.Kochur, I. Steshenko, BorysTen, Yu.Lisnyak, A.Perepadya, Y.Popovych, O.Senyuk, H.Filipchuk, M.Lytvynets', O.Mokrovolskyi, M.Moskalenko, V.Shovkun, to name but a few. It was this journal that gave a chance to the literary critics D.Zatons'kyi and V.Skurativs'kyi as well as to each of its editors-in-chief to establish closer contacts with many national literatures of the world. A prominent place among them belongs to the English language authors both from the British Commonwealth countries and from the USA.The German language works were represented by several noted authors and poets from the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria and Switzerland. No less often published in this journal were also the works of several French language authors and poets from France itself as well as from Switzerland, Algeria and some former French colonies. An equally rich representation had also different Spanish language authors both from Spain and from all Latin American countries. A noticeable place on the pages of the journal has always been occupied by the classical and contemporary authors and poets from Italy, Portugal, and Brazil. Often published in Ukrainian translation during the second half of the twentieth century (and not only in this journal) were works from all Scandinavian, Western Slavic and Baltic countries. Ukrainian readers were given an unprecedented opportunity to get acquainted with some classics and contemporary authors of the Arab, the Near Eastern, the Far Eastern, the South Asian and some young literatures of Central and Equatorial Africa. It is therefore only natural that the numerous staff of translators from various publishing houses not only well under-

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  To maintain in the target language version all the structural pe­culiarities of the matter/work under translation.
  
• 
  To hold strictly to the author's conception and render faithfully the content of the source language matter/work under transla­tion.
  
• 
  To maintain in the version of the target language the main pecu­liarities/features of the syntactic organization and stylistic means of expression of the source language matter/work.
  
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  To maintain in the version of the target language the fidelity in the means and ways of the author's depicting the artistic im­ages and expressiveness pertained to the source language matter/work.
  
• 
  To avoid deliberate omissions and any other forms of free inter­pretation/rendering unless required of the source language mat­ter/work.
  
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  To restrain in the process of translation of a text/work from any deliberate shortening or enlargement of it, as well as of any embellishment of its stylistic or artistic qualities in the target language version.
  

• To render/maintain in the target language version the pragmatic

1. 
   Translation and interpretation in ancient countries of the Near East.
   
2. 
   The first European translations and appearance of two different ways/principles of translation.
   
3. 
   Deliberate violations of the second (sense-to-sense) way/prin­ciple of translation by Horace and Apuleius and their conse­quences in the Middle Ages and later periods.
   
4. 
   Translation of ecclesiastic and secular works in the Middle Ages England and Spain.
   
5. 
   Factors favouring the revival of translation during the period of European Renaissance.
   
6. 
   Ways and methods of translation of ecclesiastic and secular works in France and Germany in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
   
7. 
   Translation in the periods of Classicism and Enlightenment (sev­enteenth - eighteenth centuries).
   
8. 
   The epoch of Romanticism and protests against the unrestricted freedom of translation in England, Germany and France. J.Herder and the birth of the principles of faithful translation.
   
9. 
   Translation of ecclesiastic and secular works in Ukraine - Rus' in the tenth - eleventh and twelfth -thirteenth centuries.
   
10. 
    The revival of translation in Ukraine in the fourteenth-sixteenth centuries (translation of the Bible and other ecclesiastic works).
    
11. 
    The Kyiv Mohyla Academy (1633-1801) and development of translation in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries Ukraine (I.Maksymovych, F.Prokopovych, D.Tuptalo, H.Skovoroda).
    
12. 
    I.Kotlyarevskyi's free interpretation of Virgil's Aeneidand its in­fluence on the methods of translation of P.Hulak-Artemovskyi, Ye.Hrebinka, L.Borovykovskyi, P.Bilets'kyi-Nosenko in the first half of the nineteenth century.
    
13. 
    M.Shashkevych, I. Vahylevych, Y.Holovats'kyi and the begin­ning of translation in Halychyna in the 1830's.
    
14. 
    P.Kulish, O.Navrots'kyi, P.Nishchyns'kyi, S.Rudans'kyi, I.Franko, M.Staryts'kyi, Lesya Ukrainka, P.Hrabovs'kyi, B.Hrinchenko with his family as translators. Their contribution to Ukrainian belles-lettres during the Tsarist prohibitions of the Ukrainian language, literature and culture in the second half of
    

15. 
    The level of artistic translation in Ukraine before and during the years of independence (1917-1921) and in the first decades of Soviet rule. O.Burhardt, M.Lysychenko, O.Baikar (Shtan'ko), M.Ryabova, H.Kasyanenko, M.lvanov, V.Samiylenko as belles-lettres translators.
    
16. 
    The political persecutions of M.Zerovand his adherents/Neo-classicists together with other most promising translators in themid1920'sand1930's.
    
17. 
    The most often employed methods of translation and the artis­tic level of translation of classical British, American, French, German and Italian prose/poetic works during the 1920's and 1930's.
    
18. 
    The revival of Ukrainian translation after World War II in the mid and late 1940's (M.Ryl'skyi, M.Tereshchenko, M.Bazhan, M.Lukash, LPervomaiskyi).
    
19. 
    The return of some prominent translators (V.Mysyk, H.Kochur, Borys Ten, D.Palamarchuk and others) from the Stalinist con­centration camps during mid 1950's-1960's and the public de­mand for raising the artistic level of Ukranian post-war belles-lettres translation (critical articles of O.Kundzich, M.Ryl'skyi and others).
    
20. 
    The role of the renewed Vsesvitjournal in fostering the post-war translators of poetic and prose works (M.Pinchevs'kyi, O.Terekh, V.Pasichna, V.Mytrofanov, H.Filipchuk, A.Perepadya, O.Mokrovol'skyi, Ye.Popovych, P.Sokolovs'kyi and others).
    
21. 
    The historical circumstances and preconditions of birth and de­velopment of Ukrainian criticism of literary artistic translation in the 20^th century.
    
22. 
    The main established principles of faithful translation and their realization in the practice of conveying the poetic and prose works by the outstanding translators (M.Zerov, M.Ryl'skyi, V.Pidmohyl'nyi, V.Mysyk, M.Lukash, Borys Ten, Ye.Popovych, Ye.Drobyazko, Yu.Lisnyak, D.Bobyr and others).
    

As it has been pointed out in chapter I, the process of written or oral translating presents in reality different forms of decoding or trans­formation which the source language units undergo at the phonetic, morphological or syntactic levels: Cf.: ambition [aembijn] амбіція, geologist геолог, metaphor метафора, participate брати участь, negotiable те (той), що піддається погодженню; рученьки beautiful little hands, лісовик (mythology) wood goblin, etc. No lingual, i.e., structural or semantic identity have in the target language many English and Ukrainian specifically national notions of lexicon (culturally biased words), which are also to be decoded, i.e., transformed Cf.: Number 10 Downing Street Даунінґ Стріт №10 (резиденція прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії), haggis зварений у жирі овечий кендюх, начинений вівсяною кашею впереміш із посіченими потрохами; кутя cooked peeled wheat, barley or rice mixed with ground poppy seeds, raisins and parceled kernels of nuts, honey and a little boiled water, etc.

Neither are there in the target language direct semantic or struc­tural equivalents for many idioms and stable expressions of the source language. Hence, they must be decoded, i.e., transformed, Cf.: Tom, Dick and Harry перший-ліпший (з), будь-хто (з), to go to the altar одружуватися, виходити заміж; клепки не вистачає nobody home, he has got a screw loose, etc.

A considerable number of other source language units, how­ever, may maintain their lingual form little changed or unchanged in the target language, as in many proper names and genuine internationalisms: Д/ггес/Альфред/Ельфред, Robert Frost Роберт Фрост, Boston Бостон, president президент, affix афікс, phoneme фонема, moforMOTop, cybernetics кібернетика, export експортувати, social соціальний, nationally національно, etc. Such and the like words are, in fact, not translated in the true sense of the word but fumed into the target language in their phonemic (sometimes also in their orthographic) form/structure. These and some other problems, which are of academic interest not only for the beginning translator but also for the teacher constitute the subject-matter of the succeed­ing chapters of this work.