Integrating the University of Alabama

4.8Integrating the University of Alabama

Kennedy administration was much better prepared this time since they had learned a lesson from the mistakes made at Ole Miss. Administration officials were in touch with the President of the University of Alabama and they also contacted Alabama businessmen and community leaders from different public spheres to support integration. As a result of that, “over two hundred Tuscaloosa⁵⁸ civil officials signed a petition urging Wallace not to ‘carry out [his] denounced intention of personally and physically interfering with the order of the United States Court’” (O’Brien 837).

President Kennedy federalized the Alabama National Guard after Nicholas Katzenbach, Deputy Attorney General, was confronted with Governor Wallace at the University campus on the day when the students were supposed to enroll. When the federalized National Guard arrived, Governor Wallace stepped aside without any further resistance. The students were admitted later that afternoon. Everything was carried out without any violence or rioting. That night, on June 11, 1963, President Kennedy delivered his speech on the civil rights, despite the discouragement of his advisors. In this memorable speech Kennedy stressed that the Americans were “confronted primarily with a moral issue…as old as the scriptures and …as clear as the American Constitution” (Kennedy, “Radio and Television Report”). The President also appealed to Congress and to all citizens of the USA in his speech. He stressed that the civil rights issues and the injustice the African Americans were experiencing was a matter concerning every American citizen. He insisted that they face “a moral crisis as a country and as a people” and that “it is time to act in Congress, in your State and local legislative body, and above all in all of our daily lives” (ibid). It was a very remarkable speech. It was the first time that president of the United States acknowledged that it was a “moral issue” (Leff, “Integrating the University of Alabama” p.19).

Bryant explains that Kennedy realized that “he could take a more proactive role in shaping public opinion” (421). Many critics see the President’s awakening as a very belated action. However, Schlesinger emphasizes that it was the perfect timing for a speech like that explaining that “if he had made his June speech in February, it would have attracted as little attention as his civil rights message that month” (966). Mr. Katzenbach explained in his interview for John. F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program that the speech was “enormously courageous” (Leff, “Integrating the University of Alabama”). The reason why it was so courageous was that it was certain that it would threaten the unity of the Democratic Party. Kennedy was aware of the consequences his speech would have. The Southerners were outraged. The most critical remark came from Senator Richard Russell of Georgia who accused Kennedy of stepping toward communist (Bryant 424).

4.9Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill

On June 19, 1963, a week after the President’s historic speech on civil rights was delivered, Kennedy sent his civil rights bill to the Congress. He claimed: “the time has come for the Congress of the United States to join with the executive and judicial branches in making it clear to all that race has no place in American life or law…” (Sorenson 199). Kennedy’s bill prohibited discrimination in public accommodation facilities, in restaurants, and shops and in any federally assisted programs. It empowered the attorney general with the right to initiate school desegregation suits. The bill proposed the establishment of a Community Relations Service which would assist individuals in racial disputes. The bill also included proposal for new fair employment programs.

As Kennedy and his aides predicted, the reaction of Southern was outraging. Senator James Eastland “described the bill as a ‘complete blueprint for the totalitarian state’’ (Bryant 428). The Southern opponents tried to delay the bill for as long as possible, however, on October 29, 1963, “The Judiciary Committee approved it … and reported it to the House on November 20” (Schlesinger, Thousand Days 973). The Civil Rights Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964. According to Stern, “Johnson played a crucial role in the fight to achieve a strong civil rights bill … he helped secure several critical votes for cloture and kept pressing the civil rights forces to maintain the integrity of the House proposal” (Calculating Visions 184). However, there certainly was a certain shift in the character of the United States politics resulting from Kennedy’s assassination which undoubtedly contributed to the passage of the law.

4.10 The March on Washington

On August 28, 1963, civil rights activists and religious leaders organized the largest civil rights rally in the American history – the March on Washington. The idea of a march in the capital city was originally proposed by A. Philip Randolph⁵⁹ in the 1940s. In 1963, civil rights organizations felt they needed to express their strong request for effective civil rights legislation and influenced by Randolph they united themselves and agreed to organize the “largest demonstration for human rights in the United States history” (Lloyd par.1). Their aim to organize a massive demonstration in the capital city was announced on June 11, 1963. The President met the Big Six⁶⁰ of civil rights at the White House and he tried to persuade them to call the march off but the civil rights activists refused. Therefore Kennedy decided that his administration would express their support to the March and would help to its peaceful realization. During the News Conference on July 17, the President said that expressing “their strong views … is in the great tradition … we want citizens to come to Washington if they feel that they are not having their rights expressed” (Kennedy, “News Conference 58” p.5).

The objective of the March was to support the civil rights bill which Kennedy administration sent to Congress on June 19. It was seen as an opportunity to stress the need for “unity, racial harmony, and, especially a cry to ‘Pass the Bill’” (Williams 198).

Over 250,000 people⁶¹ from all over the United States came to Washington, D.C. in order to attend the March. The large group of demonstrators marched from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial, where civil rights leaders performed their speeches. Martin Luther King delivered his famous speech I Have a Dream. Popular musicians and Hollywood celebrities⁶² expressed their support by performing or by their attendance. Civil rights leaders met with the Congress members before the March and later that day with the President at the White House. Kennedy welcomed all the leaders saying: “You did a superb job in making your case” (Bryant 436). Bryant confirms that Kennedy was “obviously relieved that the march was performed in a very peaceful way” (ibid.).

Not only the Kennedy administration members were afraid that the March could turn into a violent demonstration, but there was general fear that one little incident might spark into a great violent riot; therefore security was a very important issue. FBI conducted a number of surveillance operations in order to monitor the number of activists coming to Washington in order to attend the rally. FBI also monitored whether there was any connection with communist organizations. Special measures were taken - Police, National Guard and Army were all prepared to intervene if necessary.

Media across the country and also international media covered the March extensively. Great international interest led to sympathy demonstrations in a number of European cities, but also in Tel Aviv, Burundi and other places (Dudziak 192 – 193). Williams considers the March so remarkable for the fact that it was the first time when black and white people were marching together. This fact demonstrates certain change in the society. The perception of the civil rights issue had certainly changed and the nation came to understand the need for comprehensive civil rights legislation. However, the Congress did not react swiftly. Committee meetings focused on the Kennedy’s civil rights bill during the summer and autumn and the civil rights bill was finally passed in March, 1964 “with Johnson’s strong presidential leadership” (Silvestri 257)

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