Masaryk University

Conclusion

Despite the fact that Kennedy delivered several positive speeches⁶³ regarding civil rights issues during his early career, he certainly cannot be regarded as a civil rights advocate. During his years in Congress, he viewed civil rights and racial injustice as a political problem and he tried to distance himself from it. He often linked the problem of racial injustice to the Cold War. He worried about the negative image of the USA in the world. In addition, he voted with the Southerners on key civil rights legislation.

Kennedy certainly did not have much knowledge of the subject. He was raised in a wealthy family in Boston, he always attended prestigious schools, therefore he had limited opportunity to meet African Americans and become acquainted with the problems they faced. Even though he touched the problem during his years in the Congress, he mostly used very general, rather defensive language.

During his presidential campaign Kennedy promised a presidency based on proactive, flexible, energetic leadership which certainly attracted many voters because at the beginning of the 1960s, the United States citizens were prepared for a change, they were “ready to move” (Shattuck, “The Presidency of JFK” 11). Kennedy supported a fairly strong civil rights plank during his presidential campaign and he promised to end discrimination in housing with a stroke of pen. However, during his presidency, no significant legislation was passed. Many African Americans were disappointed by Kennedy’s poor performance on civil rights issues, particularly by little effort in legislation. During the first two years in office, President Kennedy was very cautious with regard to racial problems and he did not propose any comprehensive civil rights legislation. His civil rights bill, which he sent to the Congress on June 19, 1963, was viewed as his belated action resulting from growing pressure from civil rights leaders and increased civil disobedience across the United States. Even his supporters agree that Kennedy should have pursued the civil rights legislation earlier in his presidency. Certain arguments can explain Kennedy’s rather delayed actions in the field of civil rights.

Firstly, Kennedy lacked the support of Congress for any far-reaching civil rights legislation. He was elected in 1960 – that year the Democratic Party lost twenty seats and the so called Dixiecrat Coalition⁶⁴ was formed. Committee chairmen were mostly white Southerners who strongly opposed any civil rights legislation. The Democrats needed Southern electorate to be able to enact their other legislation. The President knew that if he had sent any major civil rights legislation, it would have probably been blocked and in addition, it would have outraged Southerners who would have blocked all other important legislation⁶⁵ Kennedy was going to propose. According to Alan Brinkley, Kennedy never managed to “develop an effective working relationship with the Congress on domestic issues” (Shattuck, “Presidency of JFK” 18).

Secondly, the South seemed to be separated from the rest of the USA. Robert Dallek confirmed during a debate at the J. F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum that the “the rest of the USA saw the South as sort of the crazy aunt you kept in the attic” (Dallek, “Robert Dallek on John F. Kennedy” p.25). And such were also the attitudes of most American politicians. During his visit to Alabama (when he arrived to meet Governor Wallace in 1963), Robert Kennedy said: “It’s like a foreign country” (Dallek, Unfinished Life 599). On his arrival at Alabama State Capitol General Attorney Kennedy saw state troopers wearing helmets with the signs of Confederate flags. Racism was an indispensable part of the Southern states’ culture and therefore it was not possible to achieve racial equality over a night. In addition, the Southerners were determined to defend their way of life even by means of terror and violence. Bryant explains that there was a significant difference between the objectives of African Americans living in the North and in the South. While those living in the North “had already achieved a degree of financial success and longed primarily for social acceptance,” the Southern blacks represented socially weak segment of society missing “basic civil rights – access to jobs, education, voting booths” (464).

It is also very important to understand that the responsibilities of president are far-reaching and very diverse. The end of the fifties and the beginning of the sixties was the time of great rivalry with the USSR and the time of growing tensions at the international political scene, therefore Americans were not focused primarily on domestic issues. The Bay of Pigs operation was not only a great failure of Kennedy administration, but it also contributed to concerns about “trusting CIA … and military (Dallek, “Robert Dallek on JFK” p.17). Kennedy had to handle the problem of the threat of nuclear war, which he managed to avert. He dealt with numerous other problems in Asia, Latin America and with the Berlin crisis in Europe.

It was clear that racial problems were not among the top priorities for John Kennedy but ordinary American citizens were not concerned much with the issue either. Nevertheless, his approach to the civil rights issue certainly evolved during his political career and Kennedy eventually did assume a more proactive role. His rhetoric regarding racial problems changed considerably during his political career, particularly, during his presidency. He became the first American President to speak openly about civil rights. His vocabulary switched from “protecting constitutional rights” and poor image abroad to “moral issue” and open criticism of Southern officials. The shift in President’s stance was certainly influenced by increasing tensions escalating into violent riots in 1962 and particularly in 1963. The events in the South required government intervention. Kennedy had no other possibility than to send federal troops during some of the crises despite his previous criticism of President Eisenhower.

There was certainly a shift in the U.S. society’s perception and the changing situation abroad also contributed to President’s stance. Television played an important role in forming people’s opinion. Television coverage helped to change the image of black people. The whole nation was familiar with the peaceful demonstrations organized by civil rights organizations brutally suppressed by Southern officials using police dogs and fire hoses. The March on Washington contributed to a shift in the perception of the civil rights issue as well. People began to sympathize with the African Americans. Kennedy with his rhetoric, which had previously been associated mostly with civil rights leaders, certainly helped to change the national picture of blacks and the attitude toward them. With the newly independent nations in Africa and the recently defeated fascism the world was becoming more concerned about human and civil rights so there undoubtedly was the influence of changing world situation which contributed to Kennedy’s more active role.

To sum up, Kennedy might not have done enough but he certainly did more than had been done previously and he contributed to a different perception of the racial problem in the United States even though the shift in his stance was rather belated and undoubtedly resulted from the growing pressure of civil rights advocates and increasing violence in the cities of the USA. His leadership and later also his assassination contributed largely to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Although Kennedy “had only a small record of accomplishment in civil rights,” he had made it “fashionable not to be racist” and therefore contributed largely to racial integration of African Americans in the American society (Bryant 463).

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