Notes on African-American History Since 1900

133 Mark Naison, “Marxism and Black Radicalism in America: The Communist Party Experience,” pamphlet p. 4^.

134 Martin O. Ijere, “W.E.B. BuBois and Marcus Garvey as Pan Africanists: A Study in Contrast,” Prescence African, No. 89, 1st Quarterly 1974, pp. 188-206.

135 Clarence Norris and Syril D. Washington, The Last of the Scottsboro Boys: An Autobiography [New York: A. P. Putnam’s Sons 1979] p. 17-63

136 Susan Altman, The Encyclopedia of African American Heritage [New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1997] p. 183

137 Ibid, pp. 148, 149

138 Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography [New York: The New Press, 1989] pp. 351-404

139 Ron Ramdin, Paul Robeson: The Man and his Mission [New York: Peter Owen Publishers] p. 31

140 Ibid., p. 32

141 Ibid., p. 30

142 Edwin Embree, Thirteen Against the Odds [Port Washington: The Viking Press, 1944] p. 248

143 Op. Cit. (Columbus Salley) p. 95

144 Ibid., p 97

145 Ibid., p. 95

146 Ibid., p. 95

147 Ibid., p. 96

148 Ibid., p. 96

149 Lloyd Brown, Paul Robeson Rediscovered [New York: The American Institute for Marxist Studies, 1976] p. 9

150 Ibid., p. 14

151 Ibid., p. 14

152 Op. Cit., (Columbus Salley) p. 98

153 Joyce A. Hanson, Mary McLeod Bethune and Black Women Political Activism [Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003] pp. 56-205

154 Karl Evenzz, The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad [New York: Pantheon Books, 1999] pp. 73-112

155 Robert H. Brisbone, The Black Vanguard [Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1970] pp.137.

156 Louise D. Freeman, “John O. Holly and The Future Outlook League”, Renaissance Magazine, February, 1990, pp.15 -18, Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915- 45 [Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999]

157 James R. Hooker, Black Revolutionary: George Padmore’s Path from Communism to Pan Africanism [New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970] p. 3

158 Ibid., p. 8

159 Op. Cit., (Hooker) p. 8

160 Kant Worchester, C.L.R. James: A Political Biography [New York: State University of New York Press, 1966] p. 83

161 Anna Grumshaw, Keith Holt, C.L.R. James and the Struggle for Happiness [New York: The C.L.R. James Institute and Cultural Correspondence, 1991] p. 37

162 Op. Cit., (Kent Worchester) p. 81

163 Ibid. p. 63

164 C.L.R. James: The Independence of the Black Struggle [Washington, D.C.: All African Peoples Revolutionary Party, November 1975] pp. 2-3

165 Mark Naison, “The Communist Party in Harlem in the Early Depression Years” Radical History Review, III (1976), pp. 68-95

166 C. L. R. James, The Independence of the Black Struggle [Washington, D. C.: All African Peoples Revolutionary Party, November 1975], pp 2-3

167Mark Naison, “The Communist Party in Harlem in the Early Depression Years,” Radical History Review, III (1976), pp.68-95

168Mark Naison, ‘Black Agrarian Radicalism in the Great Depression: The Threads of a Lost Tradition,” Journal of Ethnic Studies (Fall 1973), pp.49-68.

169 Jeff Henderson, “A. Philip Randolph and the Dilemmas of Socialism and Black Nationalism in the United States, 1917 -1941,” Race and Class, XX, 2 (1978), p.156.

170 Daryl Russe Grigsby, For the People: Black Socialists in the United States, Africa and the Caribbean (San Diego: Asante Publications, 1987) p. 145

171 Ibid., p. 150

172 Harry Haywood, Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-Ameican Communist (Chicago: Liberator Press, 1978) p. 375

173 Op. cit. (Aryl Grigsby) p. 152

174 Op. Cit (Harry Haywood) p. 421

175 Ibid., p. 422

176 Ibid., p. 531-532

177 Ibid., p. 567-568

178 Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Encyclopedia of the American Left (Chicago: St. James Press, 1990) p. 298

179Ibid., p. 581-582

180 Ibid., p. 587-589

181 Joe Williams Trotter Jr. The African American Experience Volume 11 From Reconstruction [Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001] p 512.

182 Muhammad Ahmad, “Toward Pan African Liberation”, The Black Scholar, Volume 5, Number 7, (April 1974), pp. 24-31

183 Herbert M. Hunler & Sameer Y. Abraham (eds.) Race, Class and the World System: The Sociology of Oliver C. Cox [New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987], p. xxix

184Elizabeth Atkins, “400 Come Together to Share History,” The Detroit News, (Sunday, March 23, 1993).

185 Joe William Trotter, Jr., The African-American Experience, Volume II, From Reconstruction [Boston: Haughton Mifflin Company, 2001] pp. 548-549

186 David J. Garrow (ed), The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, [Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press 1987], Roberta Hughes Wright, The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott [Southfield, Michigan: Charro Press, Inc. 1991], Rosa Parks with Jim Haskins, Rosa Parks: My Story [New York: Scholastic, Inc., 1992]

187 Martha Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” Radical History Review, Fall 2003/87 p. 7

188 Queen Mother Audley A. Moore, Why Reparations? [Philadelphia, Pa: The Reparations Committee, 1962] p. 2

189 Jack M Bloom, Class, Race and the Civil Rights Movement [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987], p. 151

190 David Levering Lewis, “Martin Luther King Jr. and the Promise of Nonviolent Populism” in John Hope Franklin and August Meiers’ Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century [Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1982], p. 278

191 Op. Cit. (Jack M. Bloom) p. 149

192 John Hope Franklin and August Meier, Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century [Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1982] p. 285

193 Op. Cit., (Franklin and Meiers), p. 290

194 Ibid. (Franklin and Meier) p. 299

195 Timothy B. Tyson, “Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior for Freedom 1925-1996.” Southern Exposure. Winter 1996, p. 6.

196 Ibid., p. 5.

197 Darci McConnell, “The Father of Black Revolutionaries: White God Lay Sleeping, Robert F. Williams Changed Lives,” The Grand Rapids Press, Sunday, February 19, 1995, p. E2.

198 Ibid., p. E2.

199 Timothy B. Tyson, “Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior for Freedom 1925-1996,” A Legacy of Resistance [Detroit, Michigan: Robert Williams Tribute Committee, 1996], p. 47.

200 Stephanie Banchero, “Hero or Renegade?” The Charlotte Observer, Sunday, February 26, 1995, p. 10A.

201 Ibid.

202 Interview with Robert F. Williams, Cleveland, Ohio, 1994.

203 Ibid

204 “Black Freedom Movement Loses Giant: Robert F. Williams of Monroe, N.C. Succumbs to Caner,” Justice Speaks. Volume 14, No. 3, p. 6.

205 “An Interview with Robert Williams,” Black News, Volume 4, No. 7, May 1979, p. 16.

206 Conversation with Robert F. Williams, Baldwin, Michigan, 1995

207 Ahon D. Morris, The Origins of The Civil Rights Movement [New York: The Free Press, 1984]

208 James McEvory & Abraham Miller (ed), Black Power and Student Rebellions [Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1969] p. 379.

209Elizabeth D. Schafer, Dorothy C. Salem “Baker, Ella (1903-1986)”, African-American Women: A Biographical Dictionary [New York: Garland Publishing, 1983], p. 25.

210 Ibid. (Schafer) p. 25.

211 Op. Cit. (Schafer) p. 25.

212 Joy James, Ella Baker: Black Women’s Work and Activist Intellectuals,” The Black Scholar Volume 24, No. 4. Fall 1994 p. 10.

213 Britta W. Nelson, “Ella Baker – A Leader Behind the Scenes,” Focus Volume 21 No. 8, August 1983 p. 3

214 Op. Cit., p. 10.

215 Ibid. (James) p. 10.

216 Joan Corl Elliott, Ella Baker (1903-1986) in Jessie Carney Smith (ed.) Notable Black American Women [Detroit: Gale, 1992], p. 40.

217 Op. Cit. (Elliott) (Notable Black American Women), p. 40.

218 Ibid. (Elliott) p. 40

219 Op. Cit. (Elliott), p. 41.

220 Op. Cit. (Nelson), p. 4.

221 Op. Cit. (Schafer), p. 17.

222 Carol Mueller, “Ella Baker and the Origins of Participatory Democracy” in Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne Rouse, Barbara Woods (ed.) Women in Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers 1941-1965 [Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990], p. 56.

223 Gerda Lerner, “Developing Community Leadership” in Black Women in White America [New York: Pantheon, 1972], p. 20.

224 Ella Cantarow and Susan Gushee O’Malley, “Ella Baker: Organizing for Civil Rights” in Moving the Mountain: Women Working for Social Change [New York: The Feminist Press, 1980], p. 16.

225 Charles Payne, “Strong People Don’t Need Strong Leaders: Ella Baker, Models of Social Change,” unpublished paper, Northeastern University, Department of African Studies, 1987, p. 5.

226 Carol Miller, “Ella Baker and the Origins of Participatory Democracy” in Darlene Clark Hine (ed.) Black Women in United States History, Volume 6. [Brooklyn, New York: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1990], p. 57.

227 Joanne Grant, Ella Baker: Freedom Bound [New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998], Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker & The Black Freedom Movement [Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2003]

228 S.E. Anderson, “Black Students: Racial Consciousness and the Class Struggle, 1960-1976,” The Black Scholar, January/February 1977, p. 35

229 Donald Mathews and James Prothro, “Negro Students and the Protest Movement” in James McEvoy and Abraham Miller (ed.) Black Power and Student Rebellion [Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1969], p. 379.

230 James H. Lane, Direct Action and Desegregation 1960-1962: Toward a Theory of the Rationalization of Protest [Brooklyn, New York: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1989], p. 76.

231 Martin Oppenheimer, The Sit-In Movement of 1960 [Brooklyn, New York: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1989], p. 43.

232 Anne Braden, “The Southern Freedom Movement in Perspective,” Monthly Review Magazine, July-August 1965, pp. 26-27.

233 James H. Lane, Direct Action and Desegregation 1960-1962: Toward a Theory of the Rationalization of Protest [Brooklyn, New York: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1989], p. 79.

234 Dallad Shyrlee, Ella Baker [Englewood Cliffs: Burdett Press, 1990], p. 70.

235 Anne Braden, “The Southern Freedom Movement in Perspective,” Monthly Review Magazine: Vol. 17, July-August 1965, p. 28.

236 Jo Freeman (edited) Social Movements of the Sixties and Seventies [New York: Longman, 1983], p. 35.

237 Jacqueline Johnson, Stokley Carmichael: The Story of Black Power [Engle Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1990], p. 27.

238 Op. Cit. (S.E. Anderson) p. 36

239 Ibid., p. 27.

240 Emily Stoper, The Student Non-Violent Coordinator Committee [Brooklyn, New York: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1989], p. 266.

241 Ibid., p. 266.

242 Op. Cit. (Stoper), p. 275.

243 John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi [Urbana & Chicago: Univ. of Illinois Press], p. 104.

244 Op. Cit. (Braden), p. 321.

245 Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 60’s [Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981], p. 32.

246 Op. Cit. (Braden), p. 32.

247 Ibid., p. 33.

248 James Boggs, The American Revolution (40^th Anniversary edition) [Detroit, Michigan: LeAdfoot Press, 2003] p. 82

249 Ibid., p.82

250 Op. Cit., Direct Action and Desegregation, 1960-62, p. 104.

251 Op. Cit., August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE, p. 143.

252 Op. Cit., Hampton and Foyer, Voices of Freedom, p. 94.

253 Op. Cit. (S.E. Anderson) p 37

254 Op. Cit. Meir and Rudwick, CORE, p. 140.

255 Cleveland Sellers with Robert Terrell, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC [Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1990] p. 53-54

256 Op. Cit., Blumberg, Civil Rights, p. 84.

257 Op. Cit., Branch, Parting the Waters, pp. 472-473.

258 James H. Lane, Direct Action and Desegregation, p. 106.

259 Ibid., p. 109.

260 Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, A Circle of Trust: Remembering SNCC [New Brunswick, New Jersey and London: Rutgers University Press, 1998] p. 5

261 Robert H. Brisbane, Black Activism [Valley Forge, Pa.: Judson Press, 1974] p. 59.

262 Fred Powledge, Free at Last? The Civil Rights Movement and the People Who Made It [New York Harper Perennal, 1991] p. 341.

263 Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 60’s [Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981], p. 58.

264 Ibid., (Carson), p. 58.

265 Interview/conversation with Slater King, Albany, Georgia, November 1962.

266 Op.Cit. (Cleveland Sellers with Robert Terrell) p. 60

267 Fred Powledge, Free At Last? [Boston: Little, Brown and Company 1991] p. 325

268 Ibid., p.340

269 Howard Zinn, SNCC-The New Abolitionists [Boston: Beacon Press, 1964], p. 78.

270 John Dittmer, Local People [Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994], p. 112.

271 Ibid., (Dittmer), p. 115.

272 Nicolaus Mills, “Forgotten Greenville: SNCC and the Lessons of 1963,” Dissent, Summer 1990, p. 339.

273 Op. Cit. (Powledge) p. 474.

274 Op. Cit. (Dittmer) p. 135

275 Ibid., p. 136

276 Op. Cit. (Sellers) p.56

277 Participant-Observer report interview, Max Stanford 1996, from attendance at SNCC Field Staff retreat in Greenville, Mississippi, Spring 1964.

278 Bracey, Meier, Rudwick (ed.) Conflict and Competition: Studies in the Recent Black Protest Movement [Blemont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1971], p. 140.

279 Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer [New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988], p. 42.

280 Ibid., p. 39.

281 Op. Cit., p. 40.

282 Ibid., (McAdam) p. 4.

283 Ibid., p. 71.

284 Mary Aickin Rothschild, A Case of Black and White: Northern Volunteers and the Southern Freedom Summers, 1964-1965 [Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1982], p. 118.

285 Emily Stoper, “The Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee: Rise and Fall of a Redemptive Organization in Joe Freeman” (ed) Social Movements of the Sixties and Seventies [New York: Longman, 1983], p. 324.

286 Len Holt, The Summer That Didn’t End [New York: William Morrow & Co., 1965], p. 35.

287 Howard Zinn, SNCC: Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, The New Revolutionists [Boston: Beacon Press, 1964], p. 251.

288 Doug McAdam, “Gender as a mediator of the Activist Experience: The Case of Freedom Summer,” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 97, Number 5 (March 1992), p. 1,212.

289 Op. Cit. (Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer), p. 82.

290 Peter B. Levy, Let Freedom Ring: A Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement [New York: Praeger, 1992], p. 143.

291 Op. Cit. (McAdam), p. 83.

292 Op. Cit. (Holt), p. 112.

293 Op. Cit. (Bracey, Meir, Rudwick), p. 142.

294 Op. Cit. (S.E. Anderson) p. 38

295 Op. Cit. (McAdam), p. 88.

296 Ibid. (McAdam), p. 89.

297 Ibid., (McAdam), p. 89.

298 Allen J. Matusaw “From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC, 1960-1966” in Bracey, Meier, Rudwick, Conflict and Competition: Studies in the Recent Black Protest Movement [Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1971], p. 143.

299 Op. Cit. (Clayborne, Carson), pp. 139-140.

300 Jacqueline Johnson, Stokely Carmichael: The Story of Black Power [Englecliffs, N.J.: The Silver Burdett Press, 1994], p. 61.

301 Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer with Sarah Flynn, Voices Of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950’s through the 1980’s [New York: Bantam Books, 1990], p. 216.

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