FSA Project FS246004
Risk MODELING of food fraud motivation - “NSF Fraud Protection Model”
scoping project
Objective 1: Literature and Internet Survey
Contents
1. Executive Summary: 2
2. Systematic Literature Review 3
3. Fraud Models/ Triangulation 6
4. Food Fraud Databases 8
5. Incident Reviews 10
6. High Risk Categories 11
7. Science/ Detection Methods 12
8. Price & Trade Tools 15
9. Supply Chain Fraud Risk Assessment 16
10. Fraud Organisations/Contacts 19
11. Food Agencies 23
12. Trade Associations And Professional Associations 26
Appendix A: Literature Retrieved Using Scopus Search Engine 27
Appendix B: Literature Retrieved Using Sciencedirect Engine 115
1. Executive Summary:
Documentation of food safety & defence incidents are well documented due to their consumer impact.
Some large-scale economically motivated food fraud incidents have been well documented in the scientific literature, many others have only been reports in the media if at all. Documentation where it exists is currently inconsistent and inadequate in terms of providing useful diagnostic details for risk assessment (Everstine et al., 2013. See Table 2 Item 1.).
Therefore, a dual approach has been taken with a systematic literature search being conducted alongside a broader internet search in order to inform the project team for the purpose of the project.
A systematic search was carried out using key words including: Adulterant(s/ation), Authenticity, Corruption, Counterfeit, Anti-Fraud, Fraud, Food fraud, Forensic, Fraud Management, Incidents, Tools, Solutions, Procurement, Reporting. The literature survey was conducted during September 2013 using these keywords with the Scopus and Science direct databases over 30 months. The outcome was 337 publications, which were refined, using the project criteria, to 14 key publications. The key reports have been summarized in tabular form.
The proposed model covers the 3 core parameters of Profit, Difficulty & Likelihood of Detection. This is reflective of the classic fraud triangle model as well as Capability in the Fraud Diamond model within the Difficulty parameter. In addition, the 6-facet model introduces Integrity – this is addressed through consideration of organized crime within the Profit scale.
Impact assessment as desired by the FSA can potentially be built on the likelihood of detection since adulterants are chosen by the fraudster specifically to avoid detection- this includes hazardous nature in the temptation analysis. This model will take into account the likely adulterant based on historical events such that impact will require consideration on a case-by-case basis. A separate NSF model has been developed for impact assessment that will need to be developed for this purpose.
Fraud tools have been identified for non-food and specifically for food fraud deterrent, mitigation and detection purposes.
A list of contact organizations has also been generated and is included in appendix 4 & 5.
2. Systematic Literature Review
Following a literature and Internet scoping exercise, initial results were harmonized and scrutinized in order to identify appropriate search terms and approaches for the systematic review. This led to a dual approach of a systematic literature review in parallel with a search of the Internet - including official regulatory sources. A literature search was conducted (in late September 3013) using the selected databases (Science direct and Scopus) using the terms and parameters provided in Table 1. The ensuing articles were scrutinized at the title; abstract or full document level (as appropriate) to identify if they met the remit of the review.
Table 1: Search parameters used for the literature review
Search terms (Title)
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Scopus hits >2011
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Science direct >2011
(Journals)
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Food AND Reporting
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15
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18
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Food AND Procurement
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11
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4
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Food AND Solutions
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56
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21
|
Food AND Tools
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87
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43
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Food AND Incidents
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13
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4
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Food AND Fraud management
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0
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0
|
Food AND Forensic
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3
|
1
|
Food Fraud
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9
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0
|
Food AND Fraud
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9
|
0
|
Food AND Anti-fraud
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0
|
0
|
Food AND Counterfeit
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0
|
0
|
Food AND Corruption
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1
|
1
|
Food AND Authenticity
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15
|
5
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Food AND Adulteration
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12
|
3
|
Food AND Adulterants
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3
|
0
|
Food AND Adulterant
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3
|
0
|
Total
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237
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100
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The outcome of the literature searches was to identify a total of 337 items, which included full articles, books, reviews, errata and duplication. These are provided in Appendices A & B under the search terms used for each database. Scrutiny of these items led to selection of 14 items relating to the focus of this project. Many articles on novel experimental methodology were excluded owing to the specific nature of their content. Likewise, several opinion pieces were omitted, as they were quite general. A summary of key content is given in Table 2, for each identified report. The origin of reports includes the USA, Europe, Taiwan and China. This material, in conjunction with the results of the Internet searches, will inform the content and direction future sections of the project.
Table 2: Outcomes of the literature review
Item
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Reference
[Further details appear in Appendices A & B]
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Key content
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1
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Everstine, K., Spink, J., Kennedy, S.
Economically motivated adulteration (EMA) of food: Common characteristics of EMA incidents
(2013) Journal of Food Protection, 76 (4), pp. 723-735.
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A recent comprehensive review of EMA – covering incidents, health concerns, gaps in assurance testing, and providing a key challenge to regulators. 137 unique incidents are identified since 1980: fish and seafood (24 incidents), dairy products (15), fruit juices (12), oils and fats (12), grain products (11), honey and other natural sweeteners (10), spices and extracts (8), wine and other alcoholic beverages (7), infant formula (5), plant-based proteins (5), and other food products (28).
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2
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Ancuceanu, R., Dinu, M., Aramǎ, C.
Weight loss food supplements: Adulteration and multiple quality issues in two products of Chinese origin
(2013) Farmacia, 61 (1), pp. 28-44.
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Deliberate adulteration of herbal products, used for healthcare purposes, with synthetic substances – specifically adulteration with sibutramine and phenolphthalein in two herbal food supplements of Chinese origin.
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3
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Čížková, H., Ševčík, R., Rajchl, A., Pivoňka, J., Voldřich, M.
Trends in food authenticity and detection of food adulteration
(2012) Chemicke Listy, 106 (10), pp. 903-910.
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A brief history of food adulteration in the Czech Republic. The activities of the title Faculty in detection of food adulteration are described. The detection is based (a) on determination of selected markers or (b) on chemometric analysis, by statistical processing of analytical results for a large group of samples. New methods such as metabolomics and proteomics can also be used.
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4
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Moore, J.C., Spink, J., Lipp, M.
Development and Application of a Database of Food Ingredient Fraud and Economically Motivated Adulteration from 1980 to 2010
(2012) Journal of Food Science, 77 (4), pp. R118-R126.
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Key paper on a database for food fraud.
The results summarized are a database that will be published in the US Pharmacopeial Convention's Food Chemicals Codex, 8th edition, and includes 1305 records, including 1000 records with analytical methods collected from 677 references.
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5
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Syntesa, H.L.
Communicating food safety, authenticity and consumer choice. Field experiences
(2013) Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition and Agriculture, 5 (1), pp. 19-34.
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The paper reviews patented and non-patented technologies, methods and solutions in the area of food traceability; communication of food safety; authenticity and consumer choice. 28 recent patents are reviewed in (secure) identification, product freshness indicators, meat traceability, (secure) and transport of information along the supply chain, country/region/place of origin, automated authentication, and supply chain management systems, consumer interaction systems. In addition, solutions and pilot projects are described in the areas of Halal traceability, traceability of bird's nests, cold chain management, general food traceability and other areas.
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6
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Spink, J., Moyer, D.C.
Understanding and combating food fraud
(2013) Food Technology, 67, pp. 30-35.
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Authoritative short review including EMA, public health threats, incident database research, adulteration and combating food fraud.
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7
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Bosmali, I., Ganopoulos, I., Madesis, P., Tsaftaris, A.
Microsatellite and DNA-barcode regions typing combined with High Resolution Melting (HRM) analysis for food forensic uses: A case study on lentils (Lens culinaris)
(2012) Food Research International, 46 (1), pp. 141-147.
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High Resolution Melting (HRM) analysis, coupled with five molecular markers microsatellites (SSR) markers in parallel with rpoC1 chloroplast DNA barcode targeting region were integrated, in order to facilitate the identification of Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) lentil variety 'Eglouvi'.
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8
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Galimberti, A., De Mattia, F., Losa, A., Bruni, I., Federici, S., Casiraghi, M., Martellos, S., Labra, M.
DNA barcoding as a new tool for food traceability
(2013) Food Research International, 50 (1), pp. 55-63.
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Critical review of the results of several studies to exploit the effectiveness of DNA barcoding in food traceability, and in the identification of commercial fraud.
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9
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Nepusz, T., Petróczi, A., Naughton, D.P.
Interactive network analytical tool for instantaneous bespoke interrogation of food safety notifications
(2012) PLoS ONE, 7 (4), art. no. e35652.
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Development of network analysis approaches to interrogate food notifications which could supplement the intelligence gathered by regulatory authorities and inform risk based sampling protocols.
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10
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Mietzsch, E., Graf, W., Martini, D., Schmitz, M.
Transparent food: Requirements and solutions for tracking and tracing in the food sector
(2012) Landtechnik, 67 (1), pp. 31-33.
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Development of the Transparent Food project as a blueprint proposal that provides basic and simple functionalities to enable integration of tracking and tracing systems across system boundaries and chains. After an initial requirements analysis, methods and technologies that can be used to build such a solution have been gathered, analyzed and evaluated. Reuse of existing standards and leveraging the capabilities and networks of existing organizations is a crucial factor in facilitating build-up and uptake of the envisioned backbone.
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11
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Jianhong Xue, Wenjing Zhang, Understanding China's food safety problem: An analysis of 2387 incidents of acute foodborne illness, Food Control, Volume 30, Issue 1, March 2013, Pages 311-317.
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99,487 illnesses and 380 deaths resulted from 2387 incidents leading to a risk-based analysis of acute foodborne illnesses and deaths corresponding to food pathogens, food location and settings, implicated food vehicles, sources of contamination and human causes – leading to recommendations for risk communication, risk management and future research in regard to foodborne illnesses in China.
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12
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Yu-Hsuan Chen, Shu-Ching Fu, Jhih-Kai Huang, Hwei-Fang Cheng, Jaw-Jou Kang, A review on the response and management of the plasticizer-tainted food incident in Taiwan, Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, Volume 21, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 242-246.
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A probiotic product contaminated with the plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in Taiwan – used as a clouding agent as a substitute emulsifier. It contaminated a broad range of foods and nutraceuticals. Another plasticizer, di-isononyl phthalate (DINP), was also used. The government thus initiated emergency response actions.
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13
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Wen-Feng Lin, Yao-Cheng Lyu, Ya-Jung Wu, Chi-Huan Lu, Deng-Fwu Hwang, Species identification of snapper: A food poisoning incident in Taiwan, Food Control, Volume 25, Issue 2, June 2012, Pages 511-515.
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Substitution of snapper with a Lutjanidae species containing ciguateric toxins. Study reports experimental analysis using both sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) techniques.
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14
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Keith Warriner, Case studies in food safety and authenticity: Lessons from real-life situations. J. Hoorfar. Published by: Woodhead Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-1-84569-962-6A478. {reviewed in Food Research International, Volume 52, Issue 1, June 2013, Page 198}
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Authoritative book containing sections covering: Food adulteration and authenticity: Forensic investigation of a sabotage incident in a factory manufacturing nut-free ready meals in the UK; Lessons from the large-scale incident of animal feed contamination with dioxins in Germany in 2011; Investigating the adulteration of UHT milk in Brazil; Food adulteration with melamine on an international scale: field work and troubleshooting in Africa; Investigating cases of taste disturbance caused by pine nuts in Denmark; Development and application of molecular tools to investigate the mislabelling of cod sold in Sweden; Testing for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) revealed the real source of rice imported to Norway; Documenting the ‘terroir’ aspects of award-winning Danish conserves: A model for the development of authentic food products.
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