On substances that deplete the ozone layer
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- Buses and Trains
- Annex C: Not-In-Kind Alternatives
- Air cycle
- Magneto caloric heating and cooling
- Thermo acoustic heating and cooling
- Sorption heating and cooling
Annex to Chapter 10Annex B: Regulatory actions affecting vehicle air conditioning and refrigerants This annex summarizes for several, but not all, different regions the legal situation for vehicle air conditioning systems. Light-Duty Cars and Trucks Brazil and Latin America: No specific regulations are in place in Brazil regarding mobile air conditioning. The current most important regulation (Resolução 267_00 CONAMA) states that the current gas refrigerant has to comply with the Montreal Protocol and to have low ozone depletion potential (ODP). The refrigerant currently used not only in Brazil but in whole Latin America is HFC-134a. China: In China, the refrigerant in Mobile Air Conditioning (MAC) systems had been completely changed to HFC-134a since June 30, 2007. The consumption of HFC-134a in MAC in 2012 can be estimated to be about 20,000 tons. The Chinese government also realizes the importance of reducing the emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) since HFC-134a has a high GWP value. For the refrigerant in the vehicle, the work of Chinese government is mainly focused on refrigerant recovery and reducing the refrigerant charge amount since the substitute of HFC-134a is still not so clear. Europe: European Union (EU) regulations, which control MAC system direct emissions, fall into two groups: controlling leaks phasing out high-GWP fluorinated GHG's. Directive 2006/40/EC (EU Directive, 2006) applies to passenger cars and light commercial (categories M1 and N1) and covers both the emissions from air-conditioning systems in motor vehicles and the ban on use of refrigerants with a GWP greater than 150 in new type vehicles from January 1, 2011 and all new vehicles from January 1, 2017. Due to the shortage of the low-GWP refrigerant R-1234yf, which had apparently been chosen by most if not all OEMs, the European Commission decided not to enforce the Directive until the end of 2012. Although the MAC systems of new types of vehicles to be type approved had to be compatible with MAC directive 2006/40/ EC requirements, manufacturers were allowed to fill new type approved production vehicles with R-134a until 31 December 2012. The European Commission (EC) has confirmed several times that this situation of refrigerant shortage has been resolved to its satisfaction and therefore the MAC Directive has been in full effect since 1 January 2013. The type-approval authorities of the Member States are responsible for the monitoring of the implementation of the measures above and for verifying the conformity of production after 31 December 2012. EU Commission Regulation (EC) No 706/2007 (EU Regulation, 2007) includes a harmonized test for measuring leakages from mobile air conditioning systems. EU Commission Directive 2007/37/EC (EU Directive 2007) limits refrigerant emissions from mobile air conditioning, using refrigerants with GWP>150, to 40 g/y for single evaporator systems and 60 g/y for dual evaporator systems beginning with new type vehicles in June 2008 and all vehicles in June 2009. The European Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 (EU Regulation 2009) sets emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicle. The Regulation limits CO2 emissions per kilometer to 130 gCO2/km from 2012 to 2019 and 95 gCO2/km from 2020 onwards. The regulation includes off-cycle credit for innovative technologies reducing the fuel consumption, so-called eco-innovations (chapter 12 of the Regulation), but for mobile air conditioning systems that will be regulated by a specific procedure. The EU is currently cooperating with the stakeholders to develop this procedure. It is possible that the Regulation will be extended to all the other motor vehicle categories once the application transient on passenger cars and light commercial vehicles is completed India: India has comprehensive Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 which were put in place from July 19, 2000 under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986. These rules set the deadlines for phasing-out the ozone depleting substances. There is a mandatory requirement of registration for ozone depleting substances producers, consumers, importers, reclamation centers, destruction facilities, etc. with a designated authority. The unique feature of these rules is banning of use of CFCs in manufacturing of new products and equipment including refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment for cars, busses and trains as early as January 1, 2003. This not only achieved the phase-out of CFCs earlier than the Montreal Protocol schedule but also reduced the inventory of CFC based equipment which resulted in the lowering of servicing requirements of CFCs. As a consequence of ozone depleting substances rules in India all light-duty vehicle Mobile Air Conditioning manufacturing was converted to HFC-134a from January 1, 2003 and all new manufacturing capacities were put up with HFC-134a and same is continuing. The busses and trains use either HFC-134a or HCFC-22. Most of the old MAC and train air-conditioning CFC based systems were retrofitted to HFC-134a. The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 have been amended from time to time to align with the Montreal Protocol phase-out schedule and internal policies of the country. These rules have been amended in 2014 to align with accelerated phase-out of HCFCs and amendment has been notified as Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2014. Japan: In August 2009, Japanese government allowed the import of HFC-1234yf into Japan without the limitation of usage amount, aspects and any special monitoring. This decision was made after HFC-1234yf was examined by Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, Japan's Ministry of Economics Trade and Japanese Ministry of the Environment based on “Toxic Chemicals Control Law”. USA: Motor Vehicle Air Conditioning refrigerants must be submitted to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and found acceptable under its Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program. So far (2014), approximately 17 different refrigerants, and 3 alternative technologies, have been found acceptable under the SNAP Program (USEPA 2013). The majority of these refrigerants were aimed primarily at the retrofit of CFC-12 cars and found very little, if any, use. HFC-134a was until recently the only refrigerant accepted by the OEMs and quickly became the only refrigerant used in new equipment, with a few model year 1992 vehicle types using HFC-134a and all types by model year 1995 (MACS, 2003). Three of the refrigerants found acceptable have GWPs less than 150: HFC-152a, HFC-1234yf and R-744 (CO2). All are subject to certain use conditions (for details see the particular sections covering these refrigerants). The use conditions that apply to all substitute mobile AC refrigerants are required by the USEPA to reduce the flammability and/or toxicity risks from these refrigerants as well as to avoid mixing of different refrigerants. Joint regulations from the USEPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration set requirements for corporate average fuel economy (i.e., average miles per gallon or liters per 100 kilometers) and tailpipe emissions (i.e., grams CO2-equivalent per mile or kilometer). Although these regulations do not require specific choice of refrigerants, utilizing low-leak designs and/or low-GWP refrigerants offer additional pathways to comply partially with the requirements. In addition, credits were offered for (1) improvements in air conditioning systems that reduce tailpipe CO2 through efficiency improvements, and (2) for reduced refrigerant leakage through better components and/or use of alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potential. These regulations were enacted first for model years 2012 through 2016. That rule allowed OEMs to achieve credits in advance of the regulations for design changes in model years 2009 through 2011, a stipulation that helped spur more leak-tight and fuel-efficient systems. The second set of regulations applies to model years 2017 through 2025. USEPA expects that the credits offered in this program will incentivize the uptake of low-GWP refrigerants; USEPA estimated that uptake of HFC-1234yf would reach 20% in model year 2017 vehicles, rising linearly to 100% by model year 2021 vehicles (USEPA and NHTSA, 2012b). One U.S. OEM committed to convert some models to HFC-1234yf refrigerant by MY2013 (General Motors, 2010); one of these models has been sold in the U.S. and elsewhere since 2012. A Japanese OEM also offered one MY2013 model with HFC-1234yf, and other models are expected with MY2014 designs (Automotive News, 2013). Atkinson, 2014 provides a list of 9 car types which use HFC-1234yf in the US market. In June, 2013, U.S. President Obama announced a Climate Change Action Plan. Amongst other initiatives, the President committed the USEPA to “use its authority through the Significant New Alternatives Policy Program to encourage private sector investment in low-emissions technology by identifying and approving climate-friendly chemicals while prohibiting certain uses of the most harmful chemical alternatives” (US President, 2013). One prohibition proposed by USEPA is to prohibit the use of HFC-134a in light-duty motor vehicles beginning with MY 2021 (USEPA, 2014). This proposal has not been finalized as of December 2014. USEPA has a new drive schedule that is required to be run from 2016. Initially the credits are determined strictly by a menu driven formula, but from 2017, the new AC17 test schedule must be run and the resulting CO2 emissions must support the credit before it can be applied. This drive schedule is a dynamic one with solar load applied in a test chamber. (Nelson, 2012 and Brakora, 2013).
There are no particular legal restrictions on Buses and Trains refrigerant, apart from those discussed above. However, the bus industry follows closely the developments in passenger cars and the trains industry has to date followed closely the development of hermetic and semi-hermetic systems similar to the stationary air-conditioning market. Given possible safety implications of the low-GWP alternatives, however, it may be that bus and train MAC systems will eventually use a different set of refrigerants than those used in light-duty vehicles. Annex C: Not-In-Kind Alternatives The refrigeration technologies described in this annex are all far away from a serial-production status. However, OEMs and suppliers do work on the development of these systems because they have a certain potential to become interesting alternative options for a time horizon which goes beyond 2020. For some even that seems unlikely considering the long history of effort for them. Air cycle (Brayton cycle): These systems have the advantage of using air as refrigerant which is environmentally very benign. However, they have comparatively very low energy efficiencies and cooling capacities (see Liebherr, 2010). Thermoelectric heating and cooling: Thermoelectricity (TE) is one of the simplest technologies applicable to energy conversion based on the properties of couples of materials that can use electric energy to operate as heat pumps providing active cooling or heating. Small pieces of thermoelectric material (TE elements) are connected to form a Peltier couple: one element is of p-type, the other one of n-type; they are electrically connected in series (by means of a copper plate) and thermally in parallel. A set of such couples forms a TE-module. Cost and efficiency (maybe also capacity) are currently the main issues limiting the application of thermoelectric heat pumps only to specific uses like, for example, the automotive seats air conditioning. Magneto caloric heating and cooling: Since 1975, many experimental prototypes of magnetic refrigerators at room temperature have been developed with different configurations and operating conditions (see for example Vasile, 2005, Yu, 2010, and Sciullo, 2011). Recently relevant progresses have been achieved both for applications in the automotive domain as well as for stationary application (e.g. vending machines and domestic refrigerator). The magneto caloric effect results in a temperature increase within a magneto caloric material when a magnetic field is applied owing to a reversible energy transfer from the magnetic field to the material; the material reaches the initial lower temperature once the magnetic field is removed. Thermo acoustic heating and cooling: Although the phenomenon that temperature gradients along a tube can provoke (pressure) oscillations in gases has been known for more than 150 years, it was the work of Rott (1980) which brought about the breakthrough for further investigations. The corresponding thermodynamic cycles are the Brayton (standing wave machine) and Stirling (travelling wave machine) cycle. As working fluid often helium is applied (Swift 2002). The environmentally benign working fluid as well the possibility to use the waste heat from the engine could lead to future applications of thermo acoustics in MAC systems (see for example Zink, 2010, and Zoontjens, 2005). Although recent investigations show the feasibility of these refrigerators (Bassem, 2011), significant further research and development of this technique are necessary.
The heavy duty truck application has a higher potential due to higher waste heat amount and less severe constraint in terms of weight and size. In addition to that, sorption systems offer the opportunity of long-term thermal storage.
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