Personal Research Database

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 31.pdf

Abstract: A number of low cost adsorbents from steel and fertilizer industries wastes have been prepared and investigated for the removal of anionic dyes such as ethyl orange, metanil yellow and acid blue 113 from aqueous solutions. The results indicate that inorganic wastes, i.e. blast furnace dust, sludge and slag from steel plants are not suitable for the removal of organic materials, whereas a carbonaceous adsorbent prepared from carbon slurry of fertilizer industry was found to adsorb 198, 211 and 219 mg/g of ethyl orange, metanil yellow and acid blue 113, respectively. The adsorption of dyes on this adsorbent was studied as a function of contact time, concentration, particle size and temperature by batch method. The adsorption isotherm conformed to Langmuir model and the adsorption was found to be exothermic and physical in nature. Kinetic data conforms to Lagergren’s equation with good correlation coefficients varying from 0.9998 to 0.9999 indicating that the adsorption is a first-order process. The adsorption data on carbonaceous adsorbent was compared to a standard activated charcoal sample and it was found that the prepared adsorbent is about 80% as efficient as standard activated charcoal and therefore, can be used as low cost alternative (similar to US$ 100 per ton) for colour removal from effluents. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Acid, Acid Dye, Activated Carbon, Activated Charcoal, Adsorbent, Adsorbents, Adsorption, Adsorption Isotherm, Agricultural Solid-Waste, Anionic Dyes, Aqueous Solutions, Aqueous-Solutions, Batch, Batch Method, Carbon, Coir Pith, Contact, Contact-Time, Correlation, Cost, Dyes, Exothermic, Fertilizer, Fly-Ash, Function, Industrial Waste, Industrial Wastes, Industries, Isotherm, Kinetic, Langmuir, Langmuir Model, Low Cost Adsorbents, Low-Cost Adsorbent, Metanil-Yellow, Natural Adsorbents, Particle Size, Process, Removal, Removal of Dyes, Rights, Slag, Sludge, Steel, Temperature, Toxic Substances, Water

? Marhaba, T.F., Pu, Y. and Bengraine, K. (2003), Modified dissolved organic matter fractionation technique for natural water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (1), 43-53.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 43.pdf

Abstract: A technique to fractionate dissolved organic materials (DOMs) from low DOM water (<5 mg/l) was developed by using triple columns of DAX-8 adsorption resin, one column of AG-MP-50 cationic resin, and another column of WA 10 weak anionic resin in sequence. The procedure was then applied to fractionate water samples obtained at various sampling locations throughout two surface water treatment plants (WTPs) in central New Jersey to study its effectiveness, DOM occurrence, and variation along treatment units. The treatment plants utilize different treatment methods, hence producing variability in DOM fractions suitable for examining the procedure’s effectiveness. This procedure was compared with current fractionation protocols and proved to be accurate in fractionation of low DOM water. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Adsorption, Carbon, Chlorination, Column, Dissolved Organic Matter, Effectiveness, Fractionation, Hydrophilic, Hydrophobic, Macroporous Resins, Methods, Natural, Nom, Organic Matter, Preparative Isolation, Resin, Rights, Samples, Signatures, Solutes, Surface, Surface Water, Technique, Treatment, Variability, Water, Water Samples, Water Treatment

? Deydier, E., Guilet, R. and Sharrock, P. (2003), Beneficial use of meat and bone meal combustion residue: “an efficient low cost material to remove lead from aqueous effluent”. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (1), 55-64.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 55.pdf

Abstract: Meat and bone meal (MBM) combustion residues, a natural apatite-rich substance, was evaluated as a low cost substitute for hydroxyapatite in lead sequestration from water effluents. The thermal behaviour of crude meat and bone meal was followed by TGA and 24% inorganic residue was collected. The resulting ashes were characterised by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), particle size distribution, specific surface area (BET), and elemental analysis confirming apatite contents, with high level of phosphate (56.3%) and calcium (36.8%). Mechanism and kinetics of lead removal by this bioinorganic material were investigated and compared to mechanisms and kinetics involved with synthetic apatite. Batch metal removal experiments were carried out with 500 and 1500 ppm (mg/kg) Pb²⁺ solutions. Lead concentration, calcium and pH were monitored. We observed that the mechanism is similar to that occurring for pure apatite, and involved both surface complexation and calcium hydroyapatite (CaHA), Ca-10(PO₄)₆(OH)₂, dissolution followed by less soluble Pb-10(PO₄)₆(OH)₂ precipitation, as confirmed by XRD analysis of ashes after incubation with lead solution. Our results show that this natural apatite-rich material removes in a few minutes a large quantity of lead (275 mg/g capacity) which remains however lower than the theoretical maximum capacity (if calcium were totally substituted by lead). Meat and bone meal combustion residues represent a valuable alternative apatite source for environmental application. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Analysis, Apatite, Apatite, Ashes, Behaviour, Calcium, Capacity, Complexation, Contaminated Soils, Cost, Distribution, Environmental, Experiments, Hydroxyapatite, Immobilization, Ions, Kinetics, Lead, Lead Removal, Meat and Bone Meal, Mechanism, Metal, Metal Removal, Natural, Orthophosphates, Particle Size, Pb²⁺, pH, Phosphate, Phosphates, Pollution, Precipitation, Removal, Rights, Sequestration, Sorption, Specific Surface Area, Stability, Surface, Surface Complexation, TGA, Water, X-Ray Diffraction, X-Ray-Diffraction, XRD

? Wang, W., Chiang, L.W. and Ku, Y. (2003), Decomposition of benzene in air streams by UV/TiO₂ process. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (2), 133-146.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 133.pdf

Abstract: Photocatalytic decomposition of gaseous benzene at room temperature was studied with a fixedbed annular reactor using titania as the photocatalyst. The effects of humidity, UV light intensity and benzene concentration on the conversion and mineralization of benzene were presented. Experimental results can be adequately described by using the Langmuir-Hinshelwood (L-H) kinetic model. The concentration distribution of benzene in the annular reactors of various dimensions can be described by combining the reactor design equation with L-H kinetics. Deactivation of catalyst was observed and attributed to the adsorption of reaction intermediates on TiO₂ surface. The deactivated TiO₂ catalyst could be photochernically regenerated by ozone-purging in the presence of humidity. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Adsorption, Benzene, Catalyst, Deactivation, Degradation, Design, Distribution, Gas-Phase, Humidity, Kinetic, Kinetic Model, Kinetics, L-H Kinetics, Langmuir-Hinshelwood, Langmuir-Hinshelwood Kinetics, LH, Mechanisms, Mineralization, Monolith Reactors, Photocatalyst, Photocatalytic, Photocatalytic Oxidation, Photoreactor, Presence, Process, Rights, Surface, Suspensions, Temperature, TiO₂, TiO₂, Titania, Titanium-Dioxide, Toluene, Trichloroethylene, UV, UV Light, UV Light Intensity Profile

? Jiang, H., Fang, Y., Fu, Y. and Guo, Q.X. (2003), Studies on the extraction of phenol in wastewater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (2), 179-190.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 179.pdf

Abstract: A novel extraction procedure has been developed for treating phenolic wastewater. Alcohols, amines, and organic acids were applied as extractants in separation of phenol from the wastewater containing 6000 mg/l phenol and 5% salts discharged by chemical plants, >99% phenol was recovered by extracting with octanol. The interactions of phenol with alcohols, amines, and organic acids were studied by a theoretical calculation with GAUSSIAN 98. The extraction efficiency is strongly dependent on the intermolecular interactions between the phenol and extractants. Based on the experimental and theoretical studies, a pilot-scale LLES was set-up and worked well. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Activated Carbon, Adsorption, Alcohols, Biodegradation, Efficiency, Extraction, Interactions, Novel, Oxidation, Phenol, Recycle, Rights, Salts, Separation, Supercritical Water, Theoretical Calculation, Wastewater

Dąbek, L (2003), Sorption of zinc ions from aqueous solutions on regenerated activated carbons. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (2), 191-201.

Full Text: J\J Haz Mat101, 191.pdf

Abstract: This paper discusses the increasing use of activated carbons to remove wastewater contaminants and their contribution to producing wastes abundant in heavy metals. Considering their threat to the environment and their possible recovery, research on the regeneration of spent carbon sorbents and catalysts is advisable. It has also been shown that it is possible to recover activated carbon from spent catalyst (CC_spent) generated by vinyl acetate synthesis by using supercritical extraction with carbon dioxide or by leaching with hydrochloric acid or a solution of nitric acid assisted by microwave energy. Activated carbon recovered in this work had a high sorption for zinc ions that was comparable to that of fresh commercial activated carbon.

Keywords: Spent Activated Carbon, Chemical Regeneration, Supercritical Extraction, Sorption

? Chiang, B.C., Wey, M.Y. and Yeh, C.L. (2003), Control of acid gases using a fluidized bed adsorber. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (3), 259-272.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 259.pdf

Abstract: During incineration, secondary pollutants such as acid gases, organic compounds, heavy metals and particulates are generated. Among these pollutants, the acid gases, including sulfur oxides (SO_x) and hydrogen chloride (HCl), can cause corrosion of the incinerator piping and can generate acid rain after being emitted to the atmosphere. To address this problem, the present study used a novel combination of air pollution control devices (APCDs), composed of a fluidized bed adsorber integrated with a fabric filter. The major objective of the work is to demonstrate the performance of a fluidized bed adsorber for removal of acid gases from flue gas of an incinerator. The adsorbents added in the fluidized bed adsorber were mainly granular activated carbon (AC; with or without chemical treatment) and with calcium oxide used as an additive. The advantages of a fluidized bed reactor for high mass transfer and high gas-solid contact can enhance the removal of acid gases when using a dry method. On the other hand, because the fluidized bed can filter particles, fine particles prior to and after passing through the fluidized bed adsorber were investigated. The competing adsorption on activated carbon between different characteristics of pollutants was also given preliminary discussion. The results indicate that the removal efficiencies of the investigated acid gases, SO₂ and HCl, are higher than 94 and 87%, respectively. Thus, a fluidized bed adsorber integrated with a fabric filter has the potential to replace conventional APCDs, even when there are other pollutants at the same time. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Acid, Acid Gases, Activated Carbon, Activated Carbons, Active-Carbon, Adsorbents, Adsorption, Air Pollution, Calcium, Carbon, Chemical Treatment, Coal Char Properties, Contact, Control, Discussion, Fabric Filter, Fabric Filters, Flue Gas, Flue-Gases, Fluidized Bed, Fluidized Bed Adsorber, Fluidized Bed Reactor, Granular Activated Carbon, Heavy Inetals, Heavy Metals, Heavy-Metals, Incineration, Mass Transfer, Metals, Novel, Organic Compounds, Organics, Oxides, PAHs, Performance, Pollutants, Pollution, Removal, Rights, Secondary, SO₂, SO₂ Removal Capacity, Sulfur, Sulfur-Dioxide, Transfer, Treatment, Work

Bayramoğlu, G., Bektaş, S. and Arıca, M.Y. (2003), Biosorption of heavy metal ions on immobilized white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (3), 285-300.

Full Text: J\J Haz Mat101, 285.pdf

Abstract: Trametes versicolor mycelia were immobilized in carboxymethylcellulose, CMC, beads via entrapment, and the bead containing immobilized fungus spores were incubated at 30 °C for 3 days to attain uniform growth on the bead surface. After incubation, the live and heat inactivated immobilized fungus on the CMC beads were used for the biosorption of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions.

Plain CMC beads were used as a control system. The biosorption of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions by the CMC and both live and inactivated immobilized preparations increased as the initial concentration of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions in the medium increased. The maximum biosorption capacities for both immobilized live and heat inactivated Trametes versicolor were 1.51 and 1.84 mmol Cu²⁺, 0.85 and 1.11 mmol Pb²⁺ and 1.33 and 1.67 mmol Zn²⁺ per g of dry biosorbents, respectively. Biosorption equilibrium was established in about 1.0 h and the equilibrium was well described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. A temperature change in the range of 15–45 °C did not affect the biosorption capacity. The affect of pH was also investigated and the maximum adsorption of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions on the CMC and both live and inactivated immobilized fungal biomass was observed between pH 4.0 and 6.0. The CMC beads with the immobilized fungus can be regenerated using 10 mM HCl, with up to 97% recovery of the metal ions; the biosorbents reused up to five biosorption–desorption cycles without any major loss in the biosorption capacity.

Keywords: Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺, Heavy Metal, CMC Beads, Biosorption, Trametes versicolor

? Zhang, F.S. and Itoh, H. (2003), Adsorbents made from waste ashes and post-consumer PET and their potential utilization in wastewater treatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 101 (3), 323-337.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat101, 323.pdf

Abstract: This study was carried out to prepare low-cost adsorbents from different types of waste ashes and post-consumer PET for use in industrial wastewater treatment. PET was melted and blended with ashes. The mixture was then carbonized to form different types of adsorbents. Heavy metal leaching from the adsorbents was greatly reduced compared to leaching from the bulk ashes. The BET surface area of the adsorbents ranged from 115 to 485 m²/g. The acidic sites on the adsorbents varied from 0.84 to 1.56 meq./g, higher than that of the PET carbon. The adsorption of methylene blue (MB) or heavy metals on the adsorbents was not in accordance with their surface areas because acidic sites reaction, affinity adsorption and cation exchange all contribute to the adsorption of the adsorbents. The isotherm for NIB adsorption on the adsorbents can be well described by the Langmuir or Freundlich equation but heavy metal adsorption cannot. It is believed that the adsorbents produced in this manner can be used in wastewater treatments for discoloration and heavy metal removal. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Acid, Acidic Sites, Activated Carbon, Adsorbents, Adsorption, Ashes, Carbon, Cation Exchange, Exchange, Fly-Ash, Freundlich, Freundlich Equation, Heavy Metal, Heavy Metal Adsorption, Heavy Metal Removal, Heavy Metals, Heavy-Metal, Industrial Wastewater, Industrial Wastewater Treatment, Isotherm, Langmuir, Leaching, Low Cost Adsorbents, Low-Cost Adsorbents, MB, Metal, Metal Adsorption, Metal Removal, Metals, Methylene Blue, Pet Adsorption, Recovery, Removal, Rights, Soils, Surface, Treatment, Utilization, Waste Ashes, Wastewater, Wastewater Treatment

Rengaraj, S., Joo, C.K., Kim, Y. and Yi, J. (2003), Kinetics of removal of chromium from water and electronic process wastewater by ion exchange resins: 1200H, 1500H and IRN97H. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 102 (2-3), 257-275.

Full Text: J\J Haz Mat102, 257.pdf

Abstract: The removal of chromium from aqueous solution by an ion exchange resin is described. Ion exchange resins 1200H, 1500H and IRN97H show a remarkable increase in sorption capacity for chromium, compared to other adsorbents. The adsorption process, which is pH dependent show maximum removal of chromium in the pH range 2-6 for an initial chromium concentration of 10 mg/l. The metal ion adsorption obeyed linear, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The adsorption of chromium on these cation exchange resins follows first-order reversible kinetics and pseudo-first-order kinetics. The intraparticle diffusion of chromium on ion exchange resins represents the rate-limiting step. The uptake of chromium by the ion exchange resins was reversible and thus have good potential for the removal/recovery of chromium from aqueous solutions. We conclude that such ion exchange resins can be used for the efficient removal of chromium from water and wastewater. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Activated Carbon, Adsorbents, Adsorption, Adsorption Dynamics, Adsorption Isotherms, Adsorption Kinetics, Adsorption Process, Aqueous Solution, Aqueous Solutions, Aqueous-Solutions, Capacity, Cation, Cation Exchange, Chromium, Co(II), Concentration, Copper, Diffusion, Electronic Process Wastewater, Exchange, First Order, Freundlich, Intraparticle, Intraparticle Diffusion, Ion Adsorption, Ion Exchange, Ion Exchange Resin, Ion Exchange Resins, Ion-Exchange, IRN97H, Isotherms, Kinetics, Langmuir, Langmuir and Freundlich Isotherms, Lead, Metal, Metal Ion, Nickel, pH, pH-Dependent, Potential, Process, Pseudo First Order, Pseudo-First-Order, Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics, Rate Limiting Step, Rate-Limiting Step, Recovery, Removal, Resin, Resins, Rights, Separation, Solution, Solutions, Sorption, Sorption Capacity, Sphagnum Moss Peat, Uptake, Wastewater, Water

? Quan, H.N., Teel, A.L. and Watts, R.J. (2003), Effect of contaminant hydrophobicity on hydrogen peroxide dosage requirements in the Fenton-like treatment of soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 102 (2-3), 277-289.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat102, 277.pdf

Abstract: A homologous series of n-alcohols was used as model contaminants to investigate the effect of hydrophobicity on the hydrogen peroxide concentration necessary in Fenton-like treatment for near-complete (>99%) destruction of compounds sorbed to soil. These probe compounds were selected because they exhibit equal reactivities with hydroxyl radicals, but have varied hydrophobicities. The standard Fenton reaction was first used to confirm equal hydroxyl radical reactivity for the n-alcohols. Central composite rotatable design experiments were then used to determine the conditions in an iron(III)-hydrogen peroxide system that resulted in 99% degradation of each of the probe compounds when sorbed to soil. The hydrogen peroxide concentrations required for 99% destruction of the sorbed compounds increased with probe compound hydrophobicity. Furthermore, hydrogen peroxide concentration requirements were directly proportional to the log octanol-water partition coefficients (log K_OW) of each probe compound. This quantitative relationship may not be directly applicable to other organic contaminants, but a strong correlation between log K_OW and hydrogen peroxide requirements for other contaminants will likely be found. These results confirm that hydrogen peroxide requirements for soil treatment increase as a function of contaminant hydrophobicity and provide a basis for the development of an algorithm for hydrogen peroxide requirements when modified Fenton’s reagent is used for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Chemical Oxidation, Composite, Correlation, Degradation, Design, Development, Experiments, Fenton, Fenton Like, Fenton’s Reagent, Fenton-Like, Function, Hydrogen Peroxide, Hydrophobicity, Hydroxyl Radical, In Situ, In Situ Chemical Oxidation, Iron, Mineralization, Modified, Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient, Organic Contaminants, Oxidation, Partition, Partition Coefficients, Quantitative, Reactivity, Relationship, Rights, Soil, Sorption, Treatment

Wang, Y.H., Lin, S.H. and Juang, R.S. (2003), Removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions using various low-cost adsorbents. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 102 (2-3), 291-302.

Full Text: J\J Haz Mat102, 291.pdf

Abstract: The removal of single heavy metals Co and Zn from aqueous solutions using various low-cost adsorbents (Fe₂O₃, Fe₃O₄, FeS, steel wool, Mg pellets, Cu pellets, Zn pellets, Al pellets, Fe pellets, coal, and GAC) was investigated. Experiments were performed at different solution pH values (1.5–9) and metal concentrations (0.67–333 mg/l). The effect of solution pH on metal adsorption using Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄ was significant, but was negligibly small using steel wool, Mg pellets, Fe pellets, and Al pellets over the entire pH range. Steel wool and Mg pellets were the most excellent adsorbents; for example, the removal of Zn and Co from dilute solutions (<35 mg/l) was greater than 94% at an adsorbent dose of 1.7 g/l. A mass transfer model, which involves two parameters  (50% breakthrough time) and k (proportionality constant), was proposed to describe breakthrough data of Co in the fixed beds packed with steel wool and Mg pellets. The calculated breakthrough curves agreed well with the measured data (standard deviation < 6%). The value of  decreased with increasing the flow rate. The effects of flow rates on the value of k and adsorption capacity are discussed.

Keywords: Adsorption, Removal, Heavy Metals, Low-Cost Adsorbents, Breakthrough Curve

? Zhao, Y. and Lin, W.C. (2003), Multi-functional sorbents for the simultaneous removal of sulfur and lead compounds from hot flue gases. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 103 (1-2), 43-63.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat103, 43.pdf

Abstract: A multi-functional sorbent is developed for the simultaneous removal of PbCl₂ vapor and sulfur dioxide from the combustion gases. The sorbent is tested in a bench-scale reactor at the temperature of 700°C, using simulated flue gas (SFG) containing controlled amounts of PbCl₂ and SO₂ compounds. The removal characteristics of PbCl₂ and SO₂, individually and in combination, are investigated. The results show that the mechanism of capture by the sorbent is not a simple physical adsorption process but seems to involve a chemical reaction between the Ca-based sorbent and the contaminants from the simulated flue gas. The porous product layer in the case of individual SO₂ sorption is in a molten state at the reaction temperature. In contrast, the combined sorption of lead and sulfur compounds generates a flower-shaped polycrystalline product layer. (C) 2003 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Adsorption, Adsorption Process, Calcium-Carbonate, Chemical Reaction, Chloride, Flue Gas, High-Temperature, Individual, Kinetics, Lead, Lime, Mechanism, Metal Capture, Oxygen, Process, Removal, SO₂, Sorbent, Sorbents, Sorption, State, Sulfur, Temperature

? Jones, K.D. and Huang, W.H. (2003), Evaluation of toxicity of the pesticides, chlorpyrifos and arsenic, in the presence of compost humic substances in aqueous systems. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 103 (1-2), 93-105.

Full Text: 2003\J Haz Mat103, 93.pdf

Abstract: An improved understanding of pesticide toxicity in natural systems can have important consequences for pesticide management and remediation strategies for contaminated areas. The interaction between humic substances extracted from compost natural organic matter and both organic and inorganic pesticides was evaluated for its effect on the toxicity of pesticides in the aqueous phase. The toxicity of contaminants was measured using the Microtox((R)) toxicological bioassay. Solutions containing concentrations ranging from 2 to 42 mg C/l of humic substance extracted from a South Texas compost were added to concentrations of the organic pesticide, chlorpyrifos, and toxicity reduction ranging from 50 to 100% was demonstrated. Different concentrations of arsenic ranging from 0.5 to 5 mg/l were also associated with three different concentrations of humic substances and the arsenic toxicity was consistently reduced by a factor of 100%. These results demonstrate a significant relationship between humic substance interactions with organic and inorganic pesticides, and pesticide toxicity in natural systems, and may also suggest a mechanism for pesticide toxicity reduction in natural waters through compost humic addition for contaminated groundwaters and surface waters. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Arsenic, Chlorpyrifos, Compost, Consequences, Humic Substances, Interaction, Interactions, Management, Matter, Mechanism, Natural, Natural Organic Matter, Natural Waters, Organic Matter, Organic-Compounds, Pesticides, Presence, Reduction, Relationship, Remediation, Rights, Soil, Sorption, Strategies, Surface, Systems, Texas, Toxicity, Understanding, Water, Waters

Macías-García, A., Gómez-Serrano, V., Alexandre-Franco, M.F. and Valenzuela-Calahorro, C. (2003), Adsorption of cadmium by sulphur dioxide treated activated carbon. Journal of Hazardous Materials,