The Approach of the eu and the us to Combating Terrorism in Relation to Human Rights Master Thesis

Conclusions

The 9/11 attacks have undoubtedly caused a major shift in politics on the global, regional, national and even ‘street’ level. This disastrous attack was not however an ‘exclusive’ event, not only in the sense that it was not a one-time-hit but mainly because it has been responsible for an unprecedented level of proliferation of legislation addressing the terrorist threat. This should not particularly be seen as a positive development, since many of these legal measures have in several cases aggravated the situation. Not only do these restrictive measures extend their hands into our daily lives, our private daily lives I should add, but they also tend to exacerbate in places where radicalisation is prone to yield. It used to be that radicalisation prospered only in economically and politically disparate places, however this is now beginning to change as well as can be exemplified by terrorist attacks which are perpetrated by ordinary young men and women who are or at least seem to be perfectly integrated into a society and are generally enjoying an adequate standard of living. The fact that the post-9/11 measures, not only in the US but everywhere in the world, tend to target and marginalize Muslim populations only makes the situation worse; a recipe for disaster. This perhaps has graver consequences in the EU where the Muslim population is approximately sixteen million, being manifold more than in the US. This is one of the many reasons why the EU and US diverge in their approaches to terrorism. Other reasons are inextricably linked to cultural, historical and political experiences and traditions which have directed the discourses of the Europeans and the Americans for many decades.

The first assumption I made was related exactly to this paradigm of differences. The information provided shows that the security frameworks of the US and EU are built differently, not least because the former is federal and the latter is supranational. The role of threat perceptions also plays an important role in architecting responses to terrorism, as has been shown by the military approach of the US compared with the more diplomatic approach of the EU. Perhaps this cannot wholly explain the lack of transatlantic cooperation but the different approaches at least partly explain the causes of the tensions between the new and old continents. The Americans are since 9/11 convinced that terrorism is global, period. The US strategy is thus based on the conviction that this threat has to be fought externally, as has been shown by its manoeuvres in Afghanistan and Iraq and now creeping up to Pakistan, where Al Qaeda has been building its safe haven. On the other hand, the countries of the European Union are more worried about the internal threat, which was no longer in their backyard but rather in their house. The Madrid and London bombings and several foiled plots have served as proof that Europe is both a target and a shelter or base for terrorists and the planning and execution of their activities. As a consequence, the EU has been more focused on fighting the enemy within and trying to root terrorism out from the inside. Furthermore, taken with some policies where the EU equally no longer accepted the US ‘my way or no way’ policy, was that the US had come to realise that Europe was no longer standing by to run and kiss its feet every time there was a problem to deal with.

The EU has particularly since its inception by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 been consistently enforcing measures which increase the freedom of movement of goods, services and people to levels that could have not been predicted thirty years ago when Europe was divided by the Berlin Wall and Communist rule. Despite these unprecedented developments however it is clear that it is exactly these freedoms that have played in the hands of terrorists, while the cohesion of law enforcement agencies across member states has not been blended enough to address terrorism affectively.

At the same time, the decision-making of the EU has often reached endemically piecemeal pace. Differences between criminal law and procedure, the labour of division and authority of police and judicial agencies as well as their relationships with prosecution offices are substantial and they continue to be so despite of agencies such as Europol and Eurojust.

The paradox is that the EU is calling on greater cooperation while EU member states do not want to give up sovereignty on sensitive issues such as defence and security but this is also true in circumstances when it seems that the EU’s powers are impeding into spheres and policies such as norm-setting.

The use of torture and other actions which persistently violate human rights has undermined the US not only as being the self-named superior defender of fundamental freedoms and values but also as an entity with real and effective soft power. After all, it can hardly expect that other countries will feel obliged to view the US as a norm-setter. In this sense, the prediction that ‘unchecked US power, shorn of legitimacy and disentangled from post-war norms and institutions of the international order, will usher in a more hostile international system, making it far harder to achieve American interests’⁵⁴⁰ has become a self-fulfilling prophecy. In this sense, I allow myself to include a borrowed phrase; ‘you cannot be half-Wilsonian’,⁵⁴¹ meaning you cannot delegate values, rights, ideas and policies unilaterally, or in other words without engaging in a dialogue through multilateral institutions which provide forums for cooperation, coordination and negotiation. I would add that any source of human rights and other values must first be strongly

As was mentioned earlier, these human rights-derogating policies are used as propaganda in the realms of Al Qaeda and other groups’ operatives and as a justification that the West is waging a war against Islam and what it stands for. The measures thus have several adverse effects. Firstly, do not only serve to create distrust among the domestic public, but more importantly and secondly they serve as a catalyst of radicalisation in distant places, where governments may not be able to prevent this from happening. The suicide bombers who perpetrated the London attacks were UK bred citizens and even there and then, their radicalisation was not prevented. It is thus justified to be sceptical about the prevention of radicalisation elsewhere in the world. Thirdly, they have not been nearly as effective as their initiators may have thought, hoped or expected and a majority of people will not accept Dick Cheney’s argument that just because techniques like water-boarding did bring about some results in intelligence spheres, they can be justified.

The aforementioned ‘overbreadth’ characterization is very depictive in the consequences that a broad definition condensed with vagueness can have on legal systems. The examples of US as well as EU legislation has shown that, at times, measures and sanctions were imposed which were disproportionate to the impact of international terrorism and frequently resulted in excessively intrusive methods of handling the situation, including arbitrary detention, excessive procedural measures and ‘coercive interrogations’, to use Bush’s Orwellian euphuism.

Ken MacDonald does not represent the whole world, not even a generic approach in the UK but nevertheless I think it is worth mentioning that judicial authorities are not always in favour of measures taken by the executive branch, especially when they are in clear violation not only of the inalienable but human rights in general.

There is a dire need for a reconciliation of human rights and security and an exclusion of those policies which propagate that this is an either-or combination. The policies which are now in place cannot be erased but they can be withdrawn and accountability should be sought after.

The US image been stained to the extent it is no longer as easy to get away with imposing rules and values on others, while not complying with them or even profusely violating them itself. Whether Obama can repair this much damaged image, which has been characterised as ‘abysmal’⁵⁴² in the Middle East is yet to be seen but one thing is for sure: it will be a long way to go.

The lines that are inserted at the beginning of this conclusion are thoughts, which were expressed at the launch of a UN Global Strategy to counter terrorism. In very few words, they summarise the risk that many governments have taken in the past seven years, with the objective of increasing security. More often than not however, human rights were subjugated to measures which in the end did not increase security anyway; on the contrary, they may have decreased it and created a loss on both fronts. Terrorism has resulted in divisions not only among nations but also among people. If we refer to the divide et impera strategy then, the terrorist are the biggest winners.

Abstract

The incoming Obama administration and the highlights of its policies related to counter-terrorism and everything around it in the past three months will be discussed, also so as to reflect on the future of, inter alia, transatlantic cooperation which has been hindered, many times as a result of the Bush administration. In this sense, some remarks are made towards the US role and image of a free nation, which has been seriously stained in the past few years, and whether there is a chance of a recovery.

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Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/weekinreview/19shane.html?_r=1&ref=politics&pagewanted=print

“Spanish Presidency ready for take-off”, EurActiv, 18 December 2001.

http://www.euractiv.com/en/general/spanish-presidency-ready-take/article-115160

The Economist, “Civil Liberties: The Freedom Paradox. Liberty has been the first victim of the war fought in its name”, The Economist print edition, 31 August 2006.

Available at: http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7854426

The Economist, “Guantanamo: Promises to keep”, The Economist print edition, January 2009.

Available at: http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13031321

The Economist, “Torture and the law- that curious relationship”, The Economist print edition, 5 February 2009.

Available at: http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13062575

Reports

ABERNATHY, Paul et al. Anatomy of a Terrorist attack: an in-depth investigation into the London and Madrid Subway bombings of 2005 and 2004, Matthew B. Ridgway Centre for International Security Studies at the University of Pittsburg 2006

Available at: http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/DigitalLibrary/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0C54E3B3-1E9C-BE1E-2C24-A6A8C7060233&lng=en&id=27221
Amnesty International, Military Commissions Act of 2006- turning bad policy into bad law, AI Index: AMR 51/154/2006, 29 September 2006.

Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/154/2006/en/509acb93-d3eb-11dd-8743-d305bea2b2c7/amr511542006en.pdf

Amnesty International, Justice perverted under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, 11 December 2003

Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR45/029/2003/en/4fcc7ec2-d65c-11dd-ab95-a13b602c0642/eur450292003en.html

Amnesty International EU Office. Human Rights dissolving at the borders? Counter-terrorism and EU Criminal Law, 31 May 2005.

Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/IOR61/013/2005/en/ab320693-d4e3-11dd-8a23-d58a49c0d652/ior610132005en.html

Amnesty International, USA: Below the radar- secret flights to torture and ‘disappearance’, 5 April 2006.

Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR51/051/2006/en/3edf2253-d447-11dd-8743-d305bea2b2c7/amr510512006en.html

DOHERTY, Fiona and PEARLSTEIN, Deborah (eds.), Assessing the New Normal: Liberty and Security for the Post-September 11 United States, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 2003

Available at: http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/Assessing/AssessingtheNewNormal.pdf

HEYMAN, Philip B. and KAYYEM, Juliette N. Long-Term legal strategy project for Preserving Security and Democratic Freedoms in the War on Terrorism, National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, November 2004

Human Rights Watch, Black Hole: the fate of Muslims rendered to Egypt, 9 May 2005.

Available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/05/09/black-hole-0
Human Rights Watch, Not the way forward: UK’s dangerous reliance on diplomatic assurances, 22 October 2008.

Available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/10/22/not-way-forward

ICRC Report on the treatment of fourteen “high value detainees” in CIA custody, February 2007.

Available at: http://88.80.13.160.nyud.net/leak/icrc-report-2007.pdf

International Commission of Jurists, Assessing Damage, Urging Action: Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights, , Geneva: 2009.

Available at: http://www.icj.org/IMG/EJP-report.pdf

LINDE van de, Erik et al. Quick scan of post 9/11 national counter-terrorism policymaking and implementation in selected European countries, RAND Europe, May 2002.

Available at: http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1590/

Report of the Independent Expert on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, UN document E/CN.4/2005/103, 17 February 2005.

Available at: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/106/94/PDF/G0510694.pdf?OpenElement

SUNDERLAND, Judith. “Setting an example? Counter-Terrorism Measures in Spain”, Human Rights Watch, 26 January 2005

Available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/node/11860/section/1

Lectures

BURES, Oldřich, "EU Counterterrorism Policy after 9/11: A Paper Tiger?" Delivered at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30 - September 2, 2007

GARTNER, Heinz. “European Security and Transatlantic Relations after 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5 March 2005.

Available at: http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/7/0/8/6/p70869_index.html

MACDONALD, Ken, “Security and Rights”, Speech to the Criminal Bar Association on 23 January 2007.

Available at: http://www.cps.gov.uk/news/articles/security_rights/

ROBINSON, Mary. “The Rule of Law: Striking a Balance in an Era of Terrorism”, The International Rule of Law Symposium: Plan for Action Organized by the American Bar Association and the International Bar Association, Chicago, 16 September 2006.

Available at: http://www.abanet.org/rolsymposium/docs/mary_robinson_keynote.pdf

SCHMID, Alex. “Terrorism, the Definitional Problem”, Presented at the War Crimes Research Symposium: "Terrorism on Trial" at Case Western Reserve University School of Law, sponsored by the Frederick K. Cox International Law Center, 8 October 2004.
TUCHMAN MATHEWS, Jessica. “US and Europe: Estranged Partners”, US State Department Open Forum Distinguished Lecture Series, 11 January 2002

Available at: http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=891&prog=zgp

Other

Amnesty International, No Justification for Torture Campaign.

Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/campaigns/counter-terror-with-justice/issues/no-justification-for-torture
EUROPA Glossary, “Common Position (CFSP)”.

Available at: http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/common_position_cfsp_en.htm

European Commission, “Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level”, updated February 2005

Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/eurojust/fsj_criminal_eurojust_en.htm
European Commission, “The EU fight against the scourge of terrorism”, updated March 2006.

Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/terrorism/fsj_terrorism_intro_en.htm

FLETCHER, Holly. “Aum Shinrikyo (Japan, cultists, Aleph, Aum Supreme Truth)”, Backgrounder, Council on Foreign Relations, updated 28 May 2008.

Available at: http://www.cfr.org/publication/9238/

“Operation Enduring Freedom- Afghanistan- Planning and Implementing”

Available at: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/enduring-freedom-plan.htm

“US Response, Attack on Afghanistan”, Background information

http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,,567567,00.html

1 KAGAN, Robert. “Power and weakness: why the United States and Europe see the world differently” Policy Review, Hoover Institution, June/July 2002.

2 Despite the fact that a considerably bigger part of this paper is devoted to the EU (as is already evident from the table of contents) the US is being discussed first mainly because the attacks occurred on US soil as well as because the US waged two major wars in response to these attacks.

3 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues, London, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2006. p.45

4 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world, 2^nd ed. New York: Longman , 2006. p.27

and SCHORLEMER von, Sabine, “Human Rights: Substantive and Institutional Implications of the War Against Terrorism, European Journal of International Law, vol.14, 2003, p.271

5 FREEMAN, Michael, Order, rights and threats In: WILSON, Richard Ashby (ed.), Human Rights in the ‘War on Terror’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. p.44

6 FREEMAN, Michael, Order, rights and threats In: WILSON, Richard Ashby (ed.), Human Rights in the ‘War on Terror’. P.44

7 US House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Subcommittee on Terrorism

8 SABA, Michael, “Is ‘Terrorism’ being defined by the ‘Terrorists’?”, Arab News, 19 June 2004.

Available at: http://www.arabnews.com/?page=7§ion=0&article=47019&d=19&m=6&y=2004

9 WEIGEND, Thomas, “The Universal terrorist: the international community grappling with a definition”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol.4, no.5, 2006, p.927

10 WEIGEND, Thomas, “The Universal terrorist: the international community grappling with a definition”, p.928

11 SCHMID, Alex. Terrorism: “The Definitional Problem”. Presented at the War Crimes Research Symposium: "Terrorism on Trial" at Case Westem Reserve University School of Law, 8 October 2004, p. 378

12 NOVOTNY, Daniel D., What is Terrorism? In: LINDEN van de, Edward(ed.), Focus on Terrorism, volume 8, New York: Nova Science Publishers 2007.

13 NOVOTNY, Daniel D. What is Terrorism? p. 26

14 NOVOTNY, Daniel D. What is Terrorism? p. 28

15 WEIGEND, Thomas, “The Universal terrorist: the international community grappling with a definition”, p.928

Prominent examples here are the EU Framework Decision of 2002 and the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings.

WEIGEND, Thomas, “The Universal terrorist: the international community grappling with a definition”, p.924

16 The word ‘terror’ does not appear in: the International Convention of the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, The United Nations Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism and the United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. Although it does appear in the Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression, SC Resolution 1566 (2004)

17 Unless otherwise indicated, the descriptions and facts related to this part of the chapter are extracted and based on the official report produced by the 9/11 Commission, The 9/11 Commission Report, 2004 which is available at: http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf

18 http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/aug/18/usa.terrorism, p.1

19 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.291

20 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.205

21 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.205

22 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.205

23 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.54

24 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.54

25 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.207

26 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.54

27 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.54

28 Defined as groups of terrorists who take up long-term residence in countries prior to attacks.

29 The author lists: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia, Chechnya, Indonesia, Iraq, Kosovo, Lebanon, Malaysia, Pakistan, Phillipines, Somalia, Sudan, The West Bank, Yemen, France, Spain, Britain, Germany, Israel, United States; and the border region of Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay

MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.294

30 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.294

31 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.270

32 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.269

33 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.55

34 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.269

35 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.270

36 MARTIN, Gus. Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. p.270

37 The description in this chapter is more general and mainly concerns the Afghanistan and Iraq wars as well as some mention of the incoming administration. A more detailed account is provided in chapter V, where the most significant legislation innovations are discussed.

38 http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf p.55

39 BUSH, George W. “Address to the Nation”, 11 September 2001.

Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/11/bush.speech.text/

40 “Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1368 (2001), Council Calls on All States to Bring Perpetrators to Justice”, Security Council 4370th Meeting (PM), Press Release, SC/7143, 12 September 2001.

http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm

41 Declaration of National Emergency by Reason of Certain Terrorist Attacks, Proc. 7463 14 September 2001.

Available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/uscode50/usc_sec_50_00001621----000-notes.html

42 BUSH, George W. “Address to a Joint Session of Congress Following 9/11 Attacks”, delivered 20 September 2001. Available at: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gwbush911jointsessionspeech.htm

43 BUSH, George W. “Address to a Joint Session of Congress Following 9/11 Attacks”,

This was the first time that a reference to the notion of ‘war on terror’ was made, however Bush did refer to such an approach a few days earlier, with ‘crusade’ in the same sentence. This resulted in a backlash from the Muslim community due to the negative connotation this word had on Islam.

44 KNOPF, Jeffrey W. “Misapplied Lessons? 9/11 and the Iraq debate”, The Nonproliferation review, Vol.9 no.3, Fall/Winter 2002. p.54

45 A Massive Federal Makeover, Factsheet on Homeland Security, 25 November 2002.

Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/11/20/facts.homeland/index.html

46 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.203

47 Homeland Security Act, 25 November 2002

Available at: http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/hr_5005_enr.pdf

48 The first version of this Strategy was published in September 2002. An update of was published in March 2006

49 National Security Strategy for Combating Terrorism, February 2003.

Available at: https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf

50 https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf, p.15- 24

51 The National Security Strategy of the United States, September 2002. p.5

Available at: http://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/nss2002.pdf

52 The National Security Strategy of the United States, September 2002. p.5

53 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT ACT) Act of 2001, 24 October 2001

Available at: http://epic.org/privacy/terrorism/hr3162.pdf

54 This measures is reinforced by the 2001 Anti-terrorist financing Act

55 The author is aware that this ‘condition’ was already mentioned by Bush and/or his administration almost immediately after 9/11, for instance in Bush’s speech on September 20^th. Nevertheless the source is cited as the National Strategy due to the fact that it was only here that it was codified in the approach of the US.

56 The name was changed to ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ on September 25^th

57 “Operation Enduring Freedom- Afghanistan- Planning and Implementing”

Available at: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/enduring-freedom-plan.htm

58 Section 2(a) of the AUMF Resolution dated September 18, 2001 authorising the President to use Military Force.

Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) Resolution, 18 September, 2001

Available at: http://news.findlaw.com/wp/docs/terrorism/sjres23.es.html

59 KATZMAN, Kenneth, Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and US Policy In: LINDEN van de, Edward,, Focus on Terrorism, New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc., 2007. p.85

60 A grouping of various ethnic and religious groups, united by their opposition of the Taliban and its rule of Afghanistan

61 KATZMAN, Kenneth, Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and US Policy , p.85

62 “US Response, Attack on Afghanistan”, Background information

Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,,567567,00.html

63 COX, Michael “American Power before and after 11 September: Dizzy with Success?, International Affairs, Vol.78, no.2, April 2002, p.272

64 Agreement on Provisional Arrangements in Afghanistan Pending the Re-establishment of Permanent Government Institutions (“Bonn Agreement”), Bonn, 5 December 2001

Available at: http://unama.unmissions.org/Portals/UNAMA/Documents/Bonn-agreement.pdf

65 Security Council authorizes international security force for Afghanistan; welcomes United Kingdom's offer to be initial lead nation - Resolution 1386 (2001) adopted, Security Council 4443^rd Meeting (PM), Press Release SC/7248, 20 December 2001.

Available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/sc7248.doc.htm

66 UN Secretary-General’s report A/60/224-S/2005/525, para. 68

67 KNOPF, Jeffrey W. “Misapplied Lessons? 9/11 and the Iraq debate”. P.56

68 FLETCHER, Holly. “Aum Shinrikyo (Japan, cultists, Aleph, Aum Supreme Truth)”, Backgrounder, Council on Foreign Relations, updated 28 May 2008.

Available at: http://www.cfr.org/publication/9238/

69 NACOS, Brigitte L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: understanding threats and responses in the post 9/11 world. P.202

70 KNOPF, Jeffrey W. “Misapplied Lessons? 9/11 and the Iraq debate”. 56

71 KNOPF, Jeffrey W. “Misapplied Lessons? 9/11 and the Iraq debate”. 56

72 KNOPF, Jeffrey W. “Misapplied Lessons? 9/11 and the Iraq debate”. 52

73 ALTERMAN, Eric “Fear what is it good for?” Social Research, Winter 2004

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2267/is_4_71/ai_n13807484/

74 National Security Strategy 2002, p.15

75 For instance: ‘the overlap between states that sponsor terror and those that pursue WMD compels us to action’ p.15

76 BUSH, George W. “State of the Union Address”, delivered to Congress on 29 January 2002.

Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/01/29/bush.speech.txt/

77 BUSH, George W. “State of the Union Address” 29 January 2002.

78 BUSH, George W. “War Ultimatum speech”, delivered on 18 March 2003

Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/mar/18/usa.iraq

79 BUSH, George W. “War Ultimatum speech”, 18 March 2003.

80 Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002, Public Law 107-243, 107^th Congress, HJ. Res. 114, 16 October 2002

Available at: http://www.c-span.org/Content/PDF/hjres114.pdf

81 UN Security Council Resolution 1441 (2002), adopted by the Security Council at its 4644^th meeting on 8 November 2002, S/RES/1441, 2002.

Available at: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/682/26/PDF/N0268226.pdf?OpenElement

82 Particularly, 661(1990) of 6 August 1990, 678 (1990) of 29 November 1990, 686 (1991) of 2 March 1991, 687 (1991) of 3 April 1991, 688 (1991) of 5 April 1991, 707 (1991) of 15August 1991, 715 (1991) of 11 October 1991, 986 (1995) of 14 April 1995, 1284 (1999) of 17 December 1999 and 1382 (2001) of 29 November 2001

83 UN Security Council Resolution 1441 (2002). point 1

84 UN Security Council Resolution 1441 (2002). point 2

85 OBAMA, Barack. “A New Strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan”, 27 March 2009

White House official YouTube channel

Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0aJ23skfVO0&feature=channel_page

86 BEARDEN, Milton. “Obama’s War- redefining Victory in Afghanistan and Pakistan”, Foreign Affairs, 9 April 2009. p.1

Available at: http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/64925/milton-bearden/obamas-war

87 PLEMING, Sue. “Obama team drops “war on terror” rhetoric”, Reuters, The Hague: Thomas Reuters, 30 March 2009

Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE52T7MH20090330

88 PLEMING, Sue. “Obama team drops “war on terror” rhetoric”, p.1

89 Objectives are listed in Title VI TEU

90 BRETHERON, Charlotte and VOGLER, John. The European Union as a Global Actor, London, New York: Routledge 1999.

91 MONAR, Jörg. “The EU as an International Actor in the Domain of Justice and Home Affairs, European Foreign Affairs Review, no.9, 2004. p.395

Available at: http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/file_download/communities/44_j%20monar-%20the%20eu%20as%20an%20international%20actor%20in%20jha.pdf

92 MARTENCZUK, Bernd and THIEL van, Servaas. The External Dimension of EU Justice and Home Affairs: Evolution, Challenges and Outlook In: MARTENCZUK, Bernd and THIEL van, Servaas (eds,), Justice, Liberty, Security. New Challenges for EU External Relations, Brussels: VUB Press, 2008. p.9

93 MARTENCZUK, Bernd and THIEL van, Servaas. The External Dimension of EU Justice and Home Affairs: Evolution, Challenges and Outlook. P.9

94 MONAR, Jörg. “The EU as an International Actor in the Domain of Justice and Home Affairs”. p.396

95 Meaning “Basque Homeland and Freedom” in the Basque language

96 Meaning “Corsican Front for the National liberation” in Corsican

97 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm

98 Statement by Javier Solana, EU High Representative for the CFSP -Terrorist Attacks in the United States, Brussels, S0146/01, 11 September 2001.

Available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/declarations/91098.pdf

99 Statement by Javier Solana, EU High Representative for the CFSP - Terrorist Attacks in the United States, Brussels, S0146/01, 11 September 2001.

100 Joint Declaration by the Heads of State and Government of the EU, the President of the European Parliament, the President of the European Commission and the High Representative for the CFSP, Brussels 14 September 2001.

Available at: http://www.delrus.ec.europa.eu/en/news_391.htm

101 Joint Declaration by the Heads of State and Government of the EU, the President of the European Parliament, the President of the European Commission and the High Representative for the CFSP, Brussels 14 September 2001.

102 LEUUWEN van, Marianne. Confronting Terrorism In: LEUUWEN van, Marianne (ed.) Confronting Terrorism: European Experiences, Threat Perceptions and Policies, Netherlands Institute for International Relations ‘Clingendael’, The Hague, London, New York: Kluwer International Law, 2003. p.2

103 LINDE van de, Erik et al. Quick scan of post 9/11 national counter-terrorism policymaking and implementation in selected European countries, RAND Europe, May 2002. p.158

Available at: http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1590/

104 These include:

the 1995 and 1996 Convention on extradition between the Member States

the setting up of pro-Eurojust and granting extensive competencies to Europol

the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters of 29 May 2000

the setting up of the EU Police Chiefs Task Force

105 Justice and Home Affairs Council Brussels, 20 September 2001

http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/jha/ACF6BA.pdf

106 Extraordinary European Council meeting Brussels, 21 September 2001

Available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/140.en.pdf

The original action plan can be found in: Council document SN 392676/01 REV 6

107 http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/news/terrorism/documents/concl_council_21sep_en.pdf

108 Anti-Terrorism Roadmap, Brussels 26 September 2001, SN 4019/01

Available at: http://www.statewatch.org/news/2001/oct/sn4019.pdf

109 BOER den, Monica. The EU Counter-Terrorism Wave : Window of Opportunity or Profound Policy Transformation? In: LEUUWEN van, Marianne (ed.) Confronting Terrorism: European Experiences, Threat Perceptions and Policies, Netherlands Institute for International Relations ‘Clingendael’, The Hague, London, New York: Kluwer International Law, 2003.

110 European Commission, “The EU fight against the scourge of terrorism”, updated March 2006.

Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/terrorism/fsj_terrorism_intro_en.htm

111 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:344:0093:0096:EN:PDF

112 The Consolidated List established and maintained by the 1267 Committee with respect to Al-Qaida, Usama bin Laden, and the Taliban and other individuals, groups, undertakings and entities associated with them, Last updated: 20 April 2009

http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/consolist.shtml

113 Department of Defence, International Contributions to the War Against Terrorism, Factsheet, 22 May 2002.

http://www.defenselink.mil/news/May2002/d20020523cu.pdf

114 CROTTY, William. Democratic Development and Political Terrorism IN: CROTTY William (ed.), Democratic Development and Political Terrorism

The Northeastern Series on Democratization and Political Development, Boston: Northeastern University Press 2005.

115 A Common Position is in fact a legal act under the CFSP, as according to Article 15 of the Treaty on the European Union. The aim is to make member states cooperate and coordinate on a more systematic basis. They have to be adopted unanimously in the Council. They are then published in the Official Journal and binding upon all member states who have the duty to defend and uphold them.

CFSP decision-making processes and instruments- Joint actions, common positions, adoption of common strategies. Retrieved from: http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/common_position_cfsp_en.htm

116 Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on combating terrorism, 2001/930/CFSP, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 344/90, 28.12.2001.

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:344:0090:0092:EN:PDF

117 Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism, 2001/931/CFSP, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 344/93, 28.12.2001.

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:344:0093:0096:EN:PDF

118

• 
  Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, 1963
  
• 
  Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 1970
  
• 
  Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation , 1971
  
• 
  Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 1973
  
• 
  European Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism, 1977
  
• 
  International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, 1979
  
• 
  Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 1980
  
• 
  Protocol of the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Civil Aviation, 1988
  
• 
  Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation,1988
  
• 
  Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, 1988
  
• 
  Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, 1991
  
• 
  International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, 1997
  
• 
  International Convention for the Prevention and Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 1999
  

119 Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on combating terrorism, 2001/930/CFSP. Article 14

120 A third piece of legislation adopted on December 27^th was the Regulation on specific restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism (EC No. 2580/2001), with the aim of implementing the Common Position on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism. As GEHR, Walter. “The European Union Approach to Measures against Terrorism” In: BENEDEK, Wolfgang and YOTOPOLOUS-MARANGOPOULOS, Alice (eds.). Anti-Terrorist Measures and Human Rights, The Netherlands Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2004. p.82, points out it is remarkably peculiar but most importantly confusing that the list provided in the Regulation does not match the list provided in the annex of the Common Position.

121 Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism, 2001/931/CFSP. Article 4

122 Translation: ‘More Europe’

123 Spanish Presidency ready for take-off”, EurActiv, 18 December 2001.

http://www.euractiv.com/en/general/spanish-presidency-ready-take/article-115160

124 BOER den, Monica. The EU Counter-Terrorism Wave : Window of Opportunity or Profound Policy Transformation?. P.190

125 LINDE van de, Erik et al. Quick scan of post 9/11 national counter-terrorism policymaking and implementation in selected European countries. p.95

126 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, 2002/475/JHA, Official Journal of the European Communities L 164/3 22.6.2002

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:164:0003:0007:EN:PDF

127 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA, Official Journal of the European Communities 18.7.2002, L 190/1

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:344:0090:0092:EN:PDF

128 Article 1
Terrorist offences and fundamental rights and principles

1. Each Member State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the intentional acts referred to below in points (a) to (i), as defined as offences under national law, which, given  their nature or context, may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of:

— seriously intimidating a population, or
— unduly compelling a Government or international organisation to perform or abstain from performing any act, or
— seriously destabilising or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or an international organisation, shall be deemed to be terrorist offences:

(a) attacks upon a person’s life which may cause death;

(b) attacks upon the physical integrity of a person;
(c) kidnapping or hostage taking;
(d) causing extensive destruction to a Government or public facility, a transport system, an infrastructure facility, including an information system, a fixed platform located on the continental shelf, a public place or private property likely to endanger human life or result in major economic loss;
(e) seizure of aircraft, ships or other means of public or goods transport;
(f) manufacture, possession, acquisition, transport, supply or use of weapons, explosives or of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons, as well as research into, and development of, biological and chemical weapons;
(g) release of dangerous substances, or causing fires, floods or explosions the effect of which is to endanger human life;
(h) interfering with or disrupting the supply of water, power or any other fundamental natural resource the effect of which is to endanger human life;
(i) threatening to commit any of the acts listed in (a) to (h).

129 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 5,para.2 member states are to punish the offences that fall under the common definition more severely than ordinary crime of the same type eg. murder or bodily harm. para.3 establishes minimum standards for a maximum punishment

130 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 9

131 1957 Council of Europe Convention on extradition with its two protocols of 1975 and 1978 and several bilateral conventions as well as provisions of Title III of the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement which concern extradition.

132 European Council in Tampere, Presidency Conclusions, 15-16 October 1999. point 35

Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm

133 POLAK, Premysl. Uprava mezinarodni pravni pomoci v trestnich veceh v ramci Evropske Unie s prihlednutim k ochrane jejich financnich zajmu. Spisy pravnicke fakulty Masarykovy univerzity v Brne, rada teoreticka, svazek 266 Brno: Masarykova univerzita 2003. p.173

134Among others: POLAK, Premysl. Uprava mezinarodni pravni pomoci v trestnich veceh v ramci Evropske Unie s prihlednutim k ochrane jejich financnich zajmu

This argument is generally put forth by all authors who write about this topic. This further supports what has already been mentioned earlier in this paper, namely the fact that 9/11 represented a viable catalyst for wide range of policies in general, and within the EU in particular.

135 SIEVERS, Julia, Too different to Trust? First Experiences with the Application of the European Arrest Warrant In: GUILD, Elspeth and GEYER, Florian (eds.). Security versus Justice? Police and Judicial Cooperation in the European Union, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2008.

136 SIEVERS, Julia, Too different to Trust? First Experiences with the Application of the European Arrest Warrant. p.110

137 SIEVERS, Julia, Too different to Trust? First Experiences with the Application of the European Arrest Warrant. p.110 referring to articles 3 and 4 of the Framework Decision.

138 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 1

139 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 2.1

140 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 2.2

141 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 2.2

List of offences as of 13 June 2002:

Participation in a criminal organization, terrorism, trafficking in human beings, sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, illicit trafficking in weapons, munitions and explosives, corruption, fraud, laundering of the proceeds of crime, counterfeiting currency, computer-related crime, environmental crime, facilitation of unauthorized entry and residence, murder, illicit trade in human organs and tissue, kidnapping, illegal restraint and hostage-taking, racism and xenophobia, organized or armed robbery, illicit trafficking in cultural goods, swindling, racketeering and extortion, counterfeiting and piracy of products, forgery of administrative documents and trafficking therein, forgery of means of payment, illicit trafficking in hormonal substances and other growth promoters, illicit trafficking in nuclear or radioactive materials, trafficking in stolen vehicles, rape, arson, crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC, unlawful seizure of aircraft/ships and sabotage.

142 This is to say that it is no longer checked whether the offence in question is punishable in both the requesting and the issuing state.

SIEVERS, Julia, Too different to Trust? First Experiences with the Application of the European Arrest Warrant. p.11

143 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 17.1

144 Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European Arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, 2002/584/JHA. Article 17.7

145 Article K.3 on the ‘Establishment of a European Police Office’

146 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, Justice Quarterly vol.23 issue 3, 2006 p. 341

147Council Act of 26 July 1995 drawing up the Convention on the establishment of a European Police Office (Europol Convention) 26 July 1995. Available at: http://www.europol.europa.eu/index.asp?page=legalconv

148 Annex to the Europol Convention

149 Mathieu Deflem, “Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective”, p.344

150 Mathieu Deflem, “Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective”, p.344

151 http://www.europol.europa.eu/index.asp?page=publar2001#TERRORISM

152 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, p.344

153 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, p.344

154 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, p.345

155 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, p.346

156 Mathieu Deflem, Europol and the policing of International Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism in a Global Perspective, p.346

157 http://eurlex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber&lg=en&type_doc=COMfinal&an_doc=2006&nu_doc=817

158Protocol to Europol Convention regarding Court of Justice, 1996; Protocol to Europol Convention on Privileges and Immunities, 1997; First Protocol to Europol Convention, 2000; Second Protocol to Europol Convention, 2002; Third Protocol to Europol Convention, 2003

159 http://www.statewatch.org/news/2007/jan/europol-analysis.pdf p.6

160 http://europapoort.eerstekamer.nl/9345000/1/j9vvgy6i0ydh7th/vgbwr4k8ocw2/f=/vhjtdlqwcsf5.pdf

161 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm art.46

162http://eurlex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&numdoc=32000D 0799&model=guichett&lg=en

163 European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF), Europol, the European Judicial Network and liaison magistrates

164http://eurlex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&numdoc=32000D0799&model=guichett&lg=en Art. 2

165 http://www.eurojust.europa.eu/press_releases/annual_reports/2001/annual2001.pdf

166 European Commission, “Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level”, updated February 2005

Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/eurojust/fsj_criminal_eurojust_en.htm

167 Council Decision of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, 2002/187/JHA, Official Journal L 063, 06.03.2002 P. 0001 – 0013, 28 February 2002.

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002D0187:EN:HTML
This decision was soon amended by Decision 2003/659/JHA however the author did not deem it necessary to mention in the main body of the text, due to the fact that these amendments only applied to budgetary provisions.

168 Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism, 2001/931/CFSP. Article 4

169 Joint Action of 29 June 1998 adopted by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union, on the creation of a European Judicial Network 98/428/JHA, Official Journal L 191 , 07.07.1998 P. 0004 – 0007.

Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31998F0428:EN:HTML

170 GEHR, Walter. “The European Union Approach to Measures against Terrorism”. P.89

171 Council Decision of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, 2002/187/JHA. Article 12

172 Council Decision 2003/48/JHA of 19 December 2002 on the implementation of specific measures for police and judicial cooperation to combat terrorism in accordance with Article 4 of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP, Official Journal L.16, 22.1.2003

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32003D0048&model=guichett article 3

173 Council Decision 2003/48/JHA of 19 December 2002. Article 3

174 Emphasis added by author

175 Council Decision 2005/671/JHA

176 Council Decision 2005/671/JHA art.2

177 Emphasis added by author.

Previously, the exchange of information did not apply to all stages of criminal proceedings.

178 Council Decision 2005/671/JHA art.3b.

179 Council Decision 2005/671/JHA art.4

180 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/08/st14/st14927.en08.pdf

181 At the time of writing, this framework decision is not yet fully implemented in all member states.

182 At the time of writing, the powers granted to the National members are not the same due to individual member states giving different levels of authority to their respective representatives at Eurojust.

183 http://www.europol.europa.eu/legal/agreements/Agreements/17374.pdf

184 http://www.europol.europa.eu/legal/agreements/Agreements/17374.pdf art.2

185 http://www.europol.europa.eu/legal/agreements/Agreements/17374.pdf art.6

186 Eurojust Annual Report 2007.

http://www.eurojust.europa.eu/press_releases/annual_reports/2007/Annual_Report_2007_EN.pdf p.26

187GUPTA, Anirhuda, “Iraq, US and Europe: emerging themes”. P.948

188 BBC News, “’New Europe’ backs EU on Iraq”, BBC News, 19 February 2003.

Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2775579.stm

189 BBC News “Germany readies for closest post-war poll”, BBC News, 21 September 2002

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2273299.stm

190 European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World, Brussels, 12 December 2003.

Available at: http://ue.eu.int/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf.

191 European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World p.3.

192 European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World p.9.

193 European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World p.7.

194 European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World p.3-5

195 Unless otherwise stated. The description of the events is based on: ABERNATHY, Paul et al. Anatomy of a Terrorist attack: an in-depth investigation into the London and Madrid Subway bombings of 2005 and 2004, Matthew B. Ridgway Centre for International Security Studies at the University of Pittsburg 2006

Available at: http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/DigitalLibrary/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0C54E3B3-1E9C-BE1E-2C24-A6A8C7060233&lng=en&id=27221

196 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4899544.stm

197 This suicide bombing, which occurred on May 16^th 2003, targeted and hit a Jewish community centre, a Spanish restaurant and social club, a hotel and the Belgian consulate. The attack which killed 41 people is said to have been perpetrated by a North African Al-Qaeda linked cell. (information retrieved from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3035803.stm )

198 These ten states: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia officially joined the EU in May 2004

199 This clause is in accordance with Article 42 of the Draft Constitution of Europe and is annexed to the Declaration on Combating Terrorism of 25 March 2004

200 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/79635.pdf

201

• 
  Framework Decision on the European Arrest Warrant
  
• 
  Framework Decision on Joint Investigation Teams
  
• 
  Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism
  
• 
  Framework Decision on money laundering, the identification, tracing, freezing and confiscation of instrumentalities and the proceeds of crime
  
• 
  Decision establishing Eurojust
  
• 
  Decision on implementation of specific measures for police and judicial cooperation to combat terrorism
  

Deadline by which the following had to be implemented was set to December 2004: The Framework decision on the execution of orders freezing property or evidence and the ratification of the Convention on the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, its Protocol and the three Protocols to the European Convention

202 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/79635.pdf, point 2 and 3 respectively

203 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/79635.pdf, point 3

204 http://ue.eu.int/uedocs/cmsUpload/EUplan16090.pdf

205 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/79635.pdf, point 5 b.

206 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/79635.pdf

207 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back, E!Sharp, November 2005. Available at: http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/article_keohane_esharp_nov05.pdf p.38

208 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. p. 37 and

KEOHANE, Daniel. The EU and counter-terrorism, Centre for European Reform, London, May 2005

Available at: http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/wp629_terrorism_counter_keohane.pdf

p.3

209 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. P.37

210 Document no. 10745/04.

211 http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200405/ldselect/ldeucom/53/53.pdf

212 2006/960/JHA of 18 December 2006

213 BROWNE, Anthony and WATSON, Rory, “EU divided over proposal for new anti-terror czar”, The Times, Brussels, 17 March 2004.

Available at: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article1047993.ece

214 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/ESDPdimension.pdf November 2004

215 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/ESDPdimension.pdf, p.4

216 Daniel Keohane, The EU and counter-terrorism, p. 17

217 http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/news/information_dossiers/the_hague_priorities/index_en.htm

218 HOADLEY, Stephen “European and American Security Strategies: Convergent Aims, Contrasting Means: Stephen Hoadley compares the approaches to counter-terrorism of the European Union and the United States”, New Zealand International Review, Vol.31, issue 2, 2006. p.2

219 Unless otherwise indicated, the description of the events is based on the Report of the Official Account of the Bombings in London on 7^th July 2005, London: The Stationary Office, 2006

Available at: http://www.officialdocuments.gov.uk/document/hc0506/hc10/1087/1087.pdf

220 Although it must be noted that this has been a very controversial issue., despite the fact that in September, Al Qaeda’s deputy leader had claimed responsibility for the attacks. The immediate reaction was to link up the attacks to Al Qaeda however these claims were later refuted. The above 2006 report states that the connection to Al Qaeda is not crystal clear, although two of the suspects may have established contacts when Pakistan and Afghanistan. Interestingly, RAI, Milan. 7/7: The London bombings, Islam and the Iraq war, London: Pluto Press 2006

never dwells on the debate whether Al Qaeda was involved or not. In September, Al Qaeda’s deputy leader had claimed responsibility for the attacks.

221 A major station in London’s railway as well a hub of the underground network, serving several connections.

222 RAI, Milan. 7/7: The London bombings, Islam and the Iraq war. ch.4-7- the author describes each of the bombers and how and where they were radicalized.

223 Four bombers, three on the underground network and one on a bus, failed to detonate their explosives on July 21^st 2005 in Central London.

224 JHA Council Declaration on the EU Response to the London Bombings, 11158/1/05 Rev.1 13 July 2005.

Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,459d17822,459d17a82,42fb11894,0.html

225 JHA Council Declaration on the EU Response to the London Bombings, 13 July 2005. 11158/1/05 Rev.1

http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/jha/85703.pdf point 4, p.6

and

WILKINSON, Paul. International terrorism: the changing threat and the EU’s response, Chaillot paper no.84, EU Institute for Security Studies, Paris 2005. p.32

226 Framework Decisions on the Retention of Telecommunications Data (October 2005), on the European Evidence Warrant (December 2005), on the Exchange of information between law enforcement authorities (December 2005) < based on: JHA Council Declaration on the EU Response to the London Bombings.

227 http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/jha/85703.pdf

228 Regulation on Wire Transfers (December 2005); adopting the Third Money Laundering Directive and the Regulation on cash control by September 2005; agreeing a Code of Conduct to prevent the misuse of charities by terrorists (December 2005).

229 http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/jha/85703.pdf, point 4, p. 7

230 http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/jha/85703.pdf, point 4, p. 7

231 WILKINSON, Paul. International terrorism: the changing threat and the EU’s response. P.32

232 WILKINSON, Paul. International terrorism: the changing threat and the EU’s response. P.33

233 European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council concerning Terrorist recruitment- Addressing the factors contributing to violent radicalization, COM(2005) 313 final, 21.9.2005

Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2005:0313:FIN:EN:PDF

234 BURES, Oldřich, "EU Counterterrorism Policy after 9/11: A Paper Tiger?" Delivered at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30 - September 2, 2007. p.22

235 European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council concerning Terrorist recruitment- Addressing the factors contributing to violent radicalization. Annex.

236 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14781-re01.en05.pdf

237 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14781-re01.en05.pdf, p. 3

238 BURES, Oldřich, "EU Counterterrorism Policy after 9/11: A Paper Tiger?" P.23

239 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf

240 BRADY, Hugo and KEOHANE, Daniel. Fighting Terrorism: The EU needs a strategy, not a shopping list. CER Publications, London, October 2005

Available at: http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/briefing_terrorism_11oct05.pdf

241 Latest version (March 2009) available at: http://security.homeoffice.gov.uk/news-publications/publication-search/general/HO_Contest_strategy.pdf?view=Binary

242 BRADY, Hugo and KEOHANE, Daniel. Fighting Terrorism: The EU needs a strategy, not a shopping list. P.2-3

243 COOLSAET, Rik. Radicalisation and Europe’s counter-terrorism strategy. P.1

244 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf, p. 3

245 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf, p. 13

246 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf, p 4 and BURES, Oldřich, "EU Counterterrorism Policy after 9/11: A Paper Tiger?" p.24

247 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf, p 4

248 BENDIEK, Annegret. EU Strategy on counter-terrorism: steps towards a coherent network policy, Germany Institute for international and security affaires, Berlin: November 2006. p.5. Available at: http://www.swpberlin.org/common/get_document.php?asset_id=3477

249 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st14/st14469-re04.en05.pdf , p.17

250 Version updated in February 2006 (containing 160 measures): http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/06/st05/st05771-re01.en06.pdf

251 BURES, Oldřich, "EU Counterterrorism Policy after 9/11: A Paper Tiger?" p.24

252 Amendment of the Framework Decision on combating terrorism and Evaluation report on the implementation of the Framework Decision on combating terrorism, MEMO 07/448, Brussels, 6 November 2007.

Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/07/448

253 8457/3/07 REV 3, annex 2 and 15443/07, 23 November 2007 p. 3

254 ARCHICK, Kirstin U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism, CRS Report for Congress, updated 16 October 2006. p.2

255 2002/684/JHA, Article 1

256 WEIGEND, Thomas, “The Universal terrorist: the international community grappling with a definition”, p.930

257 For instance: COOLSAET, Rik. Radicalisation and Europe’s counter-terrorism strategy. P.11 highlights the fact that political integration and cooperation has been boosted to levels that would not have been predicted pre-9/11.

258 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. p. 37

259 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. p. 37

260 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. p. 38

261 http://www.eubusiness.com/European_Council/040319105747.lh3eyujy

262 http://www.eubusiness.com/European_Council/040319105747.lh3eyujy

263 BROWNE, Anthony and WATSON, Rory, “EU divided over proposal for new anti-terror czar”. P.1

264 15443/07, 23 November 2007 p. 2

265 KEOHANE, Daniel. One step forward, two steps back. P.38

266 KEOHANE, Daniel. “The Absent Friend: EU foreign policy and counter-terrorism” EU Institute for Security studies, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.46 no.1, Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2008. p.129

267 BRADY, Hugo and KEOHANE, Daniel. Fighting Terrorism: The EU needs a strategy, not a shopping list.

268 BENDIEK, Annegret. EU Strategy on counter-terrorism: steps towards a coherent network policy. p.5

269 BENDIEK, Annegret. EU Strategy on counter-terrorism: steps towards a coherent network policy. p.5

270 BENDIEK, Annegret. EU Strategy on counter-terrorism: steps towards a coherent network policy. p.5

271 BRADY, Hugo and KEOHANE, Daniel. Fighting Terrorism: The EU needs a strategy, not a shopping list. P.2 and BENDIEK, Annegret. EU Strategy on counter-terrorism: steps towards a coherent network policy. p.18

272 TUCHMAN MATHEWS, Jessica. “US and Europe: Estranged Partners”, US State Department Open Forum Distinguished Lecture Series, 11 January 2002

Available at: http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=891&prog=zgp

273 The strictest condition in this sense is that the attack on the state has to be proven as perpetrated by an external actor.

274 GARTNER, Heinz. “European Security and Transatlantic Relations after 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5 March 2005. p.213

Available at: http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/7/0/8/6/p70869_index.html

Note: The area of NATO operation is prescribed by Article 6 of the NATO Treaty

275 GARTNER, Heinz. “European Security and Transatlantic Relations after 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”. P.214

276 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation In: PETERSON, John and POLLACK, Mark (eds.) Europe, America, Bush. Transatlantic Relations in the twenty–first century. New York: Routledge, 2003. p.21

277 COX, Michael, “American Power before and after 11 September: Dizzy with Success? P.272

278 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation. p.20

279 O’HANLON, Michael. The American way of war: the Lessons for Europe In: EVERTS, S. et al A European Way of War, Centre for European Reform, May 2004.

Available at: http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/p548_way_ofwar.pdf

http://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/p548_way_ofwar.pdf

280 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation. p.21

281 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation. p.20

282 GUPTA, Anirhuda, “Iraq, US and Europe: emerging themes”. P.948

283FREEDLAND, Jonathan “Patten lays into Bush’s America: Fury at president’s ‘axis of evil’ speech’, The Guardian, 9 February 2002, p.1

284FREEDLAND, Jonathan “Patten lays into Bush’s America: Fury at president’s ‘axis of evil’ speech’, p.1

285 SICHERMAN, Harvey. “Where have all the cowboys gone?” The National Interest, Vol.76, Summer 2004. p.165

286 GARTNER, Heinz. “European Security and Transatlantic Relations after 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”. P.213

287 GARTNER, Heinz. “European Security and Transatlantic Relations after 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq”. p214

288 Joint EU-U.S. Ministerial Statement on Combating Terrorism, 20 September 2001. Available at:

http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/declarations/Statement%20on%20combating%20terrorism%20en.htm

289 http://www.europol.europa.eu/legal/agreements/Agreements/16268-2.pdf

290 BENSAHEL, Nora, The Counterterror coalitions: Cooperation with Europe, NATO and the European Union, RAND Project Air Force, 2003, p.47

291 BENSAHEL, Nora, The Counterterror coalitions: Cooperation with Europe, NATO and the European Union, p.48

292 http://www.europol.europa.eu/legal/agreements/Agreements/16268-1.pdf

293 BENSAHEL, Nora, The Counterterror coalitions: Cooperation with Europe, NATO and the European Union, p.48

294 KOSLOWSKI, Rey. Border and transportation security in the transatlantic relationship. In:NIELSEN-DALGAARD, Anja and HAMILTON, S. Daniel. Transatlantic Homeland Security: Protecting society in the age of catastrophic terrorism, New York: Routledge, 2006. p.94

295 KOSLOWSKI, Rey. Border and transportation security in the transatlantic relationship. P.95

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297 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation. p.21

298 HOWORTH, Jolyon. Foreign and defence policy cooperation. p.21

299 HOADLEY, Stephen “European and American Security Strategies: Convergent Aims, Contrasting Means: Stephen Hoadley compares the approaches to counter-terrorism of the European Union and the United States”. P.2

300 COOLSAET, Rik. Radicalisation and Europe’s counter-terrorism strategy, The Transatlantic dialogue on Terrorism CSIS/Clingendael, 8-9 December 2005. p.2

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