The theology of the balaam oracles: a pagan diviner and the word of god

of the Old Testament," New Perspectives on the Old Testament, ed. J.

Barton Payne (Waco, Tex. , and London: Word Books, Publisher, 1970),

pp. 222-24.

29

you; they have rightly said all that they have spoken. Oh that they

ments, that it might go well with them, and with their children for

ever. I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their

brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to

them all that I command him.¹

After this text there follows, without commentary, Numbers

24:15-17, the first three verses of Balaam's fourth masal, containing the

“Star” passage. Then there is the citation of Deuteronomy 33:8-11, the

Blessing of Levi. Finally, there is a quotation from an apocryphal work

titled "The Psalms of Joshua," a work found in other texts at Qumran.²

Interpretation of the significance of this listing of verses varies.

Hayden declares that he is in wholehearted agreement with the analysis of

Allegro, who states that they have their point of contact in the final words

of each passage:

These foretell destruction on those who do not listen to the

divinely inspired words of the Prophet . . . , the enemies of the

Star and Scepter, and the opponents of the Levitical priesthood, and

lastly, the city which had been rebuilt under a curse, and whose

walls would be covered with blood in the last days. Thus the whole

collection is not so much 'messianic' as eschatological.³

House, 1969), op. 117-118.

ture,” JBL, LVXV (September, 1956), p. 187; cited by Roy Edmund Hayden,

Concept of Messiah) in the Qumran Literature in the Light of the Modern

Prophetic-Apocalyptic Controversy" (unpublished master's thesis, Fuller

Theological Seminary, 1959), p. 89. We would not agree with the last

line of Allegro's quote as being a necessary conclusion.

30

The emphasis on the point of contact in the several passages

used by the early Christians, particularly in the composite quotations to

be found in the New Testament. Osborn may be cited as representative of

those scholars who point to testimonia at Qumran as examples of the kind

of lists that the early Christians used.¹ There are others, however, who

would disagree with this conclusion. Ellis suggests that the manner of

quotation in the New Testament does not point so much to testimonia, as

to a kind of Bible study.² Moreover, the compilation of the lists of passages

at Qumran may have been based on something other than a mere "catch-

word" concept.³ It is sufficient for our present purposes merely to note

tralia: University of Western Australia Press, 1967), p. 8.

the use of testimonia among the early Christians. He writes: "the NT

evidence points not to a 'Testimony Book' as such but to a method of Bible

study which found literary expression only sporadically and which only

later resulted in the composition of 'Testimony Books'." E. Earle Ellis,

Paul’s Use of the Old Testament (Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd,

1957), p. 104.

catch-word associations on a simplistic level. He rather feels that the

association of various prophecies preceded the activities of the scholars

of Qumran and, in fact go back to the cult prophets. It was only by a

secondary systematization that the "anthologies" of prophecies developed.

Mene Prigent, "Quelques testimonia messianiques. Leur histoire litterarie

de Qoumran aux Prees de 1'eglise, " TZ, XV (1959), 419-30. Cf. also

Ernst Ludwig Ehrlich, “Ein Beitrag zur Messiaslohre der Qumransekte,"

31

the employment of Numbers 24:15-17 in this testimonia at Qumran.

One of the Qumran texts was found first not at Qumran in 1947

but in Cairo in 1897. In its first publication (1910) it was known as the

Zadokite Fragments, but is today known more widely as the Damascus Docu-

ment, or CD. Fragments of CD have been found in Cave Four and Cave

Six of Qumran.¹

The passage relevant to our discussion is CD:vii. 9-20, which

is given by Bruce as follows:

But all the despisers [ shall be visited with extinction ] when God

visits the earth to cause the recompense of the wicked to return upon

them, when the word comes to pass which is written among the words

of the prophet Isaiah the son of Amoz: 'There will come upon you and

upon your father's house such days as have [ not ] come since the day

that Ephraim departed from Judah' (Isa. vii. 17)--when the two houses

of Israel separated, Ephraim became ruler over Judah--and all those

who turned back were delivered to the sword, but those who held fast

escaped to the land of the north, as He said: 'And I will exile Sakkuth

your king, and Kaiwan your[ star-god, your] images, from my tent

to Damascus' (Amos v. 26 f. ). The books of the law are meant by 'the

booth (sukkath) of the king', as He said: 'And I will raise up the booth

of David that is fallen' (Amos ix 11). The 'king' denotes the assembly.

The 'pedestals (kanne) of the images' . . . are the books of the prophets,

whose words Israel despised. The 'star' is the Expounder of the Law

who is to come to Damascus, as it is written: 'A star shall come forth

out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel'--the 'sceptre'

is the prince of all the congregation, and when he stands up he will

'break down all the sons of Sheth' (Num. xxiv. 17).
¹ LaSor, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament, pp. 32-34.

² F. F. Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (London: The

Tyndale Press, 1959), p. 37. For the text, see Chaim Rabin, The Zadokite

32

Hayden comments on this Qumran text in the following manner,

Thus far the writer has been concerned with a description of the past,

Ephraim departed from Judah and those who stood firm escaped to the

land of the north. The books of the law are interpreted as the 'booth

of David that is fallen;' the king is the assembly; the kiyyun are the

books of the prophets, whose words Israel despised; and the star is

the interpreter of the law who came to Damascus. The scepter is the

prince of the whole congregation who will 'break down all the sons

of Seth.

The text seems to distinguish between the teacher and the

prince of the congregation. Immediately after this passage appears the

phrase, the 'anointed one of Aaron and Israel' (19:10). The reference

seems to equate the anointed one and the prince. Both seem to

execute judgment on 'those who turned back.'¹

This passage thus relates to the ongoing debate concerning the

number of Messiahs expected among the sectarians of Qumran. Some argue

for three Messiahs, some for two, and others for but one. David Noel Freed-

man may be cited as representative of those scholars who posit three Messianic

figures in the eschatological hope at Qumran. He writes:

Messianism was a prominent feature of the eschatology of Qum-

ran. While the expectation differed in detail from the views attributed

commonly to the Jews of the first century whether in the New Testament,

Josephus, or early rabbinic literature, it conforms closely to traditional

Old Testament patterns. Thus, in accordance with the Law and the

Press, 1954), pp. 27-31.

that this writer refers to our passage as "section 19" whereas Bruce listed it

as “vii." Two systems are used for references to this text. Rabin lists the

text as "VII (XIX)," The Zadokite Documents, p. 27.

33

Prophets, three eschatological figures were expected: the eschato-

the inauguration of God's rule on earth and identify and designate

both the high priest of the line of Zadok and the king of the house of

David.¹

Pfeiffer follows the prevailing view, that this passage relates

to two eschatological personages, or Messiahs, in the eschatology of

Qumran.

The Qumran commentators were convinced that God had revealed

They also looked upon their Teacher of Righteousness as one raised

up of God to give a correct interpretation of the prophetic predictions.

The Balaam prophecy, "a star shall come forth out of Jacob, and a

scepter shall rise out of Israel" (Numbers 24:17) is interpreted in the

Zadokite Work as a reference to two eschatological personages: "the

star is he who searches the Law. . . . The scepter is the prince of

the whole congregation. . . . " (5:19-20).²

LaSor, however, demurs from the position that there are two

Messiahs to be found in the literature. He concludes a lengthy section on

the arguments relative to the issue with these words:

The question of two Messiahs in sectarian Judaism is beyond

Greenfield (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1969), p.

123. One must observe that Freedman is guilty of question-begging in this

instance when he writes, "it conforms closely to traditional Old Testament

patterns."

² Pfeiffer. The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 124; cf. Bruce, Biblical

Exegesis in the Qumran Texts who writes that the "star and sceptre are

dissociated in the interpretation, the star being identified with the "Ex-

pounder of the Law and the sceptre with a military conqueror called the

‘prince of all the congregation.’” (p. 50.).

34

my field of specialization; scholars seem to be in general agreement

two Messiahs are found in Qumran Literature is, in my opinion, an

entirely different matter. The most lucid discussion I know is given

by Millar Burrows who favors the thesis of two Messiahs. I find

myself still not convinced.¹

In his latest book on the subject, the same writer explains his

position more fully relative to our passage;

The "Star" and the "Sceptre" are mentioned in the War Scroll,

and Dupont-Sommer notes that in the Damascus Document, where the

same scriptural quotation is used, these figures are identified with

the Seeker of the Law and the Prince of the Congregation, respectively.

In the War Scroll, however, the parallelism of the passage is preserved,

and a verbal form in the singular is used, indicating that the "Star" is

also the "Sceptre"

A star has marched forth from Jacob,

A sceptre has arisen from Israel;

And he will shatter the temples of Moab,

And destroy all the Sons of Seth.

(IQM 11:6; cf. Num. 24:17-19)

In the Damascus Document this citation is used as follows:

And the star is the Seeker of the Law who is coming to Damascus;

as it is written, "A star has marched forth from Jacob, and a

sceptre has arisen from Israel." The sceptre is the Prince of

all the Congregation, and when he arises he will destroy all the

sons of Seth. (CD 7:18-21).

To attempt any identification of this passage with the Teacher of

Righteousness is precarious.^2
1 LaSor, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Faith, p. 156.

² LaSor, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament, p. 111.

LaSor discusses the concept of the Teacher of Righteousness in the book

at some length (pp. 106-130), and argues for caution against the rash claims

made by some enthusiasts who have taken events recorded about Jesus and

35

Order of Warfare (IQM)

One of the most well-known non-biblical scrolls found at Qumran

is the War Scroll, or The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Dark-

ness. The architect of the Shrine of the Book in modern Jerusalem has con-

ceptualized the thrust of this scroll in his use of the black wall and the white

scroll jar to form the buildings of the museum. The scroll itself describes

a war between two opposing armies. One party consists of the tribes of

Levi, Judah, and Benjamin. The other is made of the Ammonites, the Moab-

ites, and the Edomites, plus some others. With these protagonists in the

battle, it comes as little surprise that reference would be made to Numbers

24:17-18. The relevant passage is to be found in section VII of the document:

Thine is the battle, and from with Thee is the might, not ours. Neither

our strength nor the power of our hand have done deeds of valour, but

as Thou hast told us from of old, saying:

'There shall come forth a star out of Jacob, a sceptre shall rise

out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab and destroy

all sons of Sheth, and he shall go down to battle from Jacob and

shall cause to perish the remnant [ out of ] the city, and the

enemy shall be a possession, and Israel shall do valiantly'.

By the hand of Thine anointed ones, the seers of things ordained, Thou

hast foretold us the e[pochs ] of the wars of Thy hands, that Thou

mayest be honoured upon our enemies, by felling the troops of Belial,

the seven nations of vanity, by the hand of the poor ones that are to
have tried to read these back into the figure of the Teacher of Righteousness.

Compare also in this regard the judicious treatment by F. F. Bruce, The

l956), pp. 36.

36

be redeemed by Thee [with powe]r and retribution, for wondrous might,

them as unto Pharaoh and the captains of his chariots in the Red Sea.

Thou wilt cause the law of spirit to burn like a torch of fire in a sheaf,

devouring the wicked, which shall not (OR: Thou wilt not) return until

the guilty are annihilated. From of old Thou hast announced to us the

time appointed for the mighty deed of Thy hand against the Kittim,

saying:

'Then shall Asshur fall with the sword not of man, and the sword,

This is not the place to attempt to deal with the many bristling

questions concerning the theology of the Qumran community. Suffice it to

remark that eschatological feelings were very high among the members of the

community. They seem to have believed that they were living in the last

days. And in this concern for the last days, they turned again and again

to Balaam's prophecy of Numbers 24:15-18, particularly verse 17--a prophecy

of the Star and the Scepter. Bruce observes:

For, the community of Qumran believed, the prophets had all

spoken of the time of the end rather than of the days in which they

lived. If Balaam spoke of 'a star out of Jacob' which would 'smite

through the corners of Moab' (Nu. xxiv. 17); if Ezekiel described the

aggression and overthrow of Gog, of the land of Magog' (Ezek.

xxxviii. 1 ff.); if Isaiah announced the Assyrian's fall 'with the sword,

not of men' (Is. xxxi. 8); if Habakkuk witnessed the advance and

decline of 'the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation' (Hab. i. 6)--

these prophets were not concerned about persons and events of their

own times, but with the defeat of the Kitti'im by the sons of light at

ford University Press, 1962), pp. 310-12. The second quoted passage

from Isaiah 31:8. See also Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts,

pp.). 50-51.

37

the time of the end.¹

From this brief survey of the citations from Balaam's fourth

the community members. Roth adds that it should come as no surprise that

this prophecy was such a favorite, for it concerns itself with the End of

Days, a subject of intense concern to the people at Qumran:

There are indeed other prognostications of the End of Days in the

Bible, but this is the only one which may be considered in any sense

detailed, passing in review as it does, one by one, the various

peoples which were within the purview of the seer and detailing their

ultimate fate. Hence, it could not fail to be considered as it were

the essential prophecy of the End of Days, to which men turned for

guidance in the hour of darkness and oppression.² [ Emphasis added. ]

In the very lovely volume, A History of the Holy Land, Michael

Avi-Yonah describes the events of the Second Roman War in 132 A. D.^3
1 F. F. Bruce, The Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran Texts,

p. 10. The word Kittim is a matter of great dispute. Bruce concludes in the

work: "On the whole it seems more probable that they are Romans, "

p. 11. This is also the conclusion of Mansoor, The Dead Sea Scrolls, pp.

66-68.

² Cecil Roth, "Star and Anchor: Coin Symbolism and the End of

Days,” EI, VI (1960), 13*; cf. idem, "The Subject Matter of Qumran Exegesis,"

VT X (1960), 51-68; idem, "The Era of the Habakkuk Commentary, VT, XI

(1961), 451-55.

The Jerusalem Publishing House, Ltd.; and New York: The Macmillan Com-

pany, 1969), pp. 162-67.

38

Among the factors he mentions in the preparations for the war, is the element

leadership of Rabbi Akiba:

The man who led the new generation, the saintly scholar Rabbi

Akiba, son of Joseph, had his finger on the pulse of popular feeling,

having risen to eminence from very humble origins as a shepherd.

Under his influence, most of the seniors of the Sanhedrin agreed to

renew the war. While a surge of Messianic emotion stirred the

country, the architects of the Second Revolt planned it coolly and

carefully. They were, above all, concerned to avoid the errors which

had brought about the collapse of the First Revolt: the wrong and

haphazard choice of its timing, just when the Orient was full of

Roman troops, the fratricidal war between the insurgents themselves,

the lack of proper preparation of men and arms, the tendency of the

rebels to lock themselves up in fortresses and there passively await

an inevitable doom.¹

We may not delay in the present paper to describe the short-

lived and ill-fated war. But it is tangent to our study to cite the same

writer's introductory paragraph on the war proper. For here we find reference

made to the "Star" passage of Balaam:

In the autumn of 132 AD the moment came. Once the harvest

had been safely gathered in, the chosen commander, Simon, son of

Kosiba, was proclaimed Messiah by Rabbi Akiba himself, who ecstat-

ically applied to him the verse in Numbers 24:17: 'There shall come

a Star out of Jacob'. From the Aramaic word for star (Kochba), Simon

is known in history as Bar-Kochba; it has been surmised that this new

prince (nassi) of Israel was descended from David, and his kinship

with Rabbi Eleazar of Modein suggests that he had Hasmonaean blood.²

Bruce writes that not all were happy with the name "Bar-Kochba.

39

This would be especially true of Jewish Christians. "They preferred to call

fact, not all the rabbis were happy with what Rabbi Akiba had done. Rabbi

Jonathan ben Tortha is reported to have told Rabbi Akiba, "Akiba, grass

will grow on your cheeks and the Messiah will still not have come."²

It has only been since 1951-52 that the correct pronunciation

of the original name of the leader of the Second Roman War has been known.

Letters were found in the winter of 1951-52 in a cave on the Wadi Murabba^cat

written by "Simeon ben Koseba"--the authentic spelling of his name. One

of the letters reads as follows:

From Simeon Ben-Kosebah to Yeshua Ben-Galgolah and to the men of

your company. Peace! I call heaven to witness against me that if

one of the Galilaeans whom you have protected troubles us, I will

put fetters on your feet as I did to Ben-Aflul. Simeon Ben-Kosebah,

Prince of Israel.³

Thus we may see that long after the genuine Messiah had come,

those who had rejected Him were still looking for a "messiah. " Moreover,

when they thought they had found what they wanted in a "messiah, " they
¹ Bruce, Second Thoughts, p. 32.