Theology beacon dictionary of theology
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- For Further Reading: Wesley, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection; Wesley, Sermon on "Christian Perfection," Works, 6:1; Wiley, CT
- A Theology of Love, 268-301; Taylor, Life in the Spirit, 11-28, 56-90.
- For Further Reading: Blackwood, The Fine Art of Worship; Planning a Years Pulpit Work.
- For Further Reading: Perry, The Gospel in Dispute; Curtis, The Christian Faith; Hamilton, Whats New in Religion Smith
- For Further Reading: Bonhoeffer, Ethics, 188-213; Bakers DT, 114-15; Henry, Christian Personal Ethics, 398-418; Jones
They are not perfect in knowledge. They are not free from ignorance, no, nor from mistake. We are no more to expect any living man to be infallible, than to be omniscient. They are not free from infirmities, such as weakness or slowness of understanding, irregular quickness or heaviness of imagination . . . impropriety of language, un-gracefulness of pronunciation, to which one might add a thousand nameless defects, either in conversation or behavior. From such infirmities as these none are perfectly freed till their spirits return to God; neither can we expect till then to be wholly freed from temptation; for "the servant is not above his master" (ibid., 374). See holiness, perfect love, entire sanctification, heart purity For Further Reading: Wesley, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection; Wesley, Sermon on "Christian Perfection," Works, 6:1; Wiley, CT, 2:440-516; Turner, The Vision Which Transforms, 129-60; Cox, John Wesley's Concept of Perfection, 68-137; Wynkoop, A Theology of Love, 268-301; Taylor, Life in the Spirit, 11-28, 56-90. Wilber T. Dayton CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM. Socialism as generally understood means the national ownership and control of the means of economic production. This includes capital, land, and all other property which should be administered by government for the common good of all. It is basically a political term applied to economics. As such there can be no such thing as Christian socialism in the present world order. This is true simply because all men are born in sin, totally depraved, and government is composed of men. Just as man acts naturally out of selfish interests, so governments act out of selfish interests. The experience of the Christians of Jerusalem, as recorded in Acts 4:32—5:4, is sometimes cited as an example of Christian socialism; but a close look at the passage will show two important aspects: (1) the actions were motivated by love one for another, and (2) the actions were entirely voluntary, not compulsory. Even after their property was sold, it was entirely up to them to contribute or not contribute the sum to the common fund (5:4). This was cooperation but not socialism. Such experiences as working together, sharing goods and services, helping the needy from a common fund or source, do not constitute socialism. These activities should be based on the plain teachings of the NT, both in the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, which show clearly that Christians should have love and concern for the needs of others, both to fellow believers and unbelievers. Although it is impossible to have a free society in a completely socialistic framework, and although Christian socialism in the correct sense is an impossibility, there are several ways in which Christian cooperative action for the common good may be compared to and somewhat resemble socialism. For example, there are cases where misfortune afflicts a Christian to the extent he could not survive without the support of other Christians. A second comparative aspect is the fact that the Christian community should and often does make provision to care for its needy. Pension funds, retirement and nursing homes, orphanages, parochial schools, camps, and many other enterprises are examples of provisions which many individuals could not provide alone. This is Christian collective cooperation, but hardly socialism. See state, institutions of christianity. For Further Reading: Baker's DCE, 637-43. Otho Jennings CHRISTIAN WARFARE. See spiritual warfare. CHRISTIAN YEAR. The Christian year is the framework within which, by means of special seasons and days, the Church as the family of God remembers, reiterates, and reappropriates the major events of its faith and history, somewhat as families celebrate wedding anniversaries or birthdays. Every day of the year is dedicated to God by the Christian; however, from the beginning God himself regarded some days as special. In Creation it was the seventh day; in the deliverance of His people it was the Day of Atonement. There was Passover Day, the Day of the Firstfruits, etc. The writer of the apocryphal Ecclesiasticus wrote of the days: "In much knowledge the Lord hath divided them and made their ways diverse. Some of them hath he blessed and exalted, and some of them hath he sanctified, and set near himself" (33:7-12). Compare the Hebrew Year in Leviticus 23. The Christian Year enables us to keep the spiritual and secular more properly related without allowing the latter to swallow up the former. In the beginning the main celebration of the Church was Easter—a comprehensive celebration of the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus, all on a single day. Thereafter, a spirit of joy pervaded Christian life and worship for the period covering Pentecost, 50 days after the Passover. Leading up to Easter, "discipling" classes were held to prepare new Christians for baptism. But there were other days observed by non-Christians and Christians alike: e.g., the followers of Mithras held as sacred "the Day of the Sun" and also December 25 as "natalie solis in-victi" which became sacred to the Church as Christmas Day, but not until c. 350 because of its pagan association. The following have come to be widely recognized as the main special days in the Christian calendar: Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, First Sunday in Lent, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, Ascension Day, Pentecost (Whitsunday), Trinity Sunday, First Sunday in Advent, Christmas. In addition numerous denominational, national, and quasi-religious days have been added, such as Mother's Day, Father's Day, Thanksgiving Day, Memorial Day, Laymen's Sunday, etc. Andrew W. Blackwood warns of the danger of the Church becoming dominated by a proliferation of special days. Yet the utilization of the basic traditional seasons can provide incalculable aid in religious education. Care must be taken to prevent these occasions from degenerating into mere traditions, which often lose sight of the true spiritual meaning. See worship, church. For Further Reading: Blackwood, The Fine Art of Worship; Planning a Year's Pulpit Work. T. Crichton Mitchell CHRISTIANITY. The term "Christianity" has several definitions and referents, not all of them consistent with one another. Here, Christianity will be described from two points of view: the theological and the cultural-sociological, with a passing reference to the historical. Theologically, Christianity shows its roots in Judaism by its confession that there is but one God, and that He is the Creator of all things, creating out of nothing. So He is the presupposition of all else. Both religions hold that the human being is a special creation of this God, not simply another aspect of material creation but a person given stewardship over it. Both also believe that God has established a personal relationship between himself and the human as the norm. Both religions hold that morality, as it may be defined by this God, is the fundamental concern in this relationship and that it should be fundamental to the relationships between humans, and between humans and material creation as well. Both religions hold that the norm is more often disregarded than regarded by humans and that therefore humanity must repent. Both hold that God forgives, not because of some necessity, but out of His grace. Both religions believe that this God has revealed himself to humanity, especially through certain writers whom He has inspired and whose writings have been collected in the OT. These writings contain history, law, poetry, wisdom, prediction, and moral-spiritual evaluations, all of it intended to establish and maintain an appropriate relationship between God and humanity. Both religions hold that the OT is authoritative for faith and practice, but the "how" and "why" of that authority are debated. More specifically, Christianity may be defined as that religion whose keystone is the belief that the God described in the OT has revealed himself in Jesus of Nazareth, who is the only true Savior of man, effectually of all who believe in Him for redemption from their sinfulness. It is universally affirmed by all types of Christians that Jesus of Nazareth is a genuinely histor- CHRISTIANITY (cont.) 109
ical figure, a unique person who inhabited the time and space that we experience. It is agreed that He died at the hands of the Roman government on instigation of some of the religious leaders among the Jews about the year a.d. 30, just outside the wall of Jerusalem. Obviously He was fully human in His physical characteristics, but the nature of that humanity, and just what it means to say that He was also divine, and the relationship between these two natures, human and divine, are points perpetually debated. However, the mainstream of Christianity has insisted that He is both fully human and fully divine. The debates have circled around the meaning of "fully." Christians agree that humankind in its fallen state is sinful, though definitions of sin vary widely, sometimes contradicting one another. All believe that the principal concern of Jesus was to remedy that sinfulness, though again definitions of how and why the remedy are many and sometimes contradictory. Going beyond the sacred book of the Jews, Christians recognize the 27 books called the New Testament as authoritative for faith and practice, though the "how" and "why" are contested. In the NT, Christians believe they have the God-inspired perspective on the person and work of Jesus and also faithful guidance for living as Christians. There they believe they learn that Jesus' suffering and death were in vicarious atonement for their sins; that He was raised from among the dead by God himself to show that our sin is conquered (as is death); that He is coming again to judge living and dead and to take those who believe in Him to be with himself forever; that He has established the Church as His agent to proclaim what He has done and will do, and to make it possible for Him to do it; and that He has sent the Holy Spirit to work in and through the Church as Convincer, Corrector, Comforter, and Sanctifier. It is agreed among Christians that the ethic of Christianity is generated by love—God's love at work in human beings. The Holy Spirit is especially at work in this generating. The eschatological element in Christianity is very pervasive and fundamental. There is a paradoxical tension between its celebration of earthly creation and its assurance that the earthly is temporary, that its purpose is probationary and preparatory, and that while the kingdom of God is manifest now among Christians its "center of gravity" is in heaven. The chief concern of Christianity is the redemption of a lost race, and the eternal destiny of persons. Its eschatos includes not reincarnation or Nirvana, but a real heaven and a real hell. Christianity as a historical phenomenon is difficult to define. At present, there are four major divisions that have roots in the time of Jesus and His apostles: Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Anglicanism. There are numbers of groups, some authentically Christian, some marginally related, some clearly spurious, that either do not want to be or cannot be placed in one of the four large categories. Having viewed Christianity from an abstract, theological vantage point and noted in passing its great historical expressions, it remains to note something of its cultural-sociological manifestation. The most common designation of this phenomenon is "Christian civilization." Obviously, the term is very problematic. Nonetheless, it does point to a highly significant collection of attitudes and behaviors which has shaped much of the contemporary world, either directly or in reaction. First, one may note the presence, where Christianity has been strong, of a positive regard for this world. It is looked upon as real, not illusory; as of essentially positive value, not as negative or neutral. However; it has not been viewed as an end in itself, but as an arena, a locus,, in which eternal issues are determined. Second, there has usually been an insistence upon the special value of the human being in relation to the value of all else. The human being has been seen as essentially different from nature and its processes, though not separate from them nor immune to them. Third, value has usually been expressed in moral categories, as opposed to physical, material, intellectual, or pragmatic categories. Even the course of physical nature has been assumed to have some moral significance. Fourth, morality has been defined in terms of a personal Being external to any particular human being or human society. Value has been thought to have been the subject of revelation, not of human invention, and certainly not of natural necessity. Fifth, the passage of time, with its coming to be and passing away of things, of people, of ideas, has been assumed to be real and linear. History is not believed to repeat itself, though there may arise future situations analogous to situations already experienced. This, in turn, has given rise to the notion of progress—that is, the notion that history is headed somewhere. Generally, that "somewhere" has been thought to be better than the here-and-now.
Sixth, where Christianity has seen to the permeation of its message, there has been an assumption that individuals and societies need law, if not to bring in a better future, at least to restrain humankind from self-destruction in the present. It has also been understood that while humankind must take moral responsibility for itself and develop its own law, the essentials of that law have been revealed by Deity, and it has been understood that human law is basically an explication of divine revelation. This has generally meant that no one in the society has been assumed to be above the law, but it has also meant that the law was viewed as "made for man, and not man for the [law]." That is to say, it has generally been accepted that law is to be suited to particular human circumstances. None of these characteristics has ever been practiced by the society at large in an entirely Christian manner. Each of them has been open to abuse, and each of them has been transformed from time to time into a completely secular mode. Nonetheless, they do seem to be uniquely Christian in their inspiration and in their original expressions. Thus, it seems appropriate to refer to them as the characteristics of "Christian civilization." Christianity, therefore, must be defined in terms of its historical roots, its normative teachings, its institutional expressions, and its sociological and ethical principles as they affect society. See eastern orthodoxy, catholicism (roman), protestantism, anglo-catholicism, non-christian religions, religion (religious), bible, christ. For Further Reading: Perry, The Gospel in Dispute; Curtis, The Christian Faith; Hamilton, What's New in Religion? Smith, Therefore Stand; Stewart, A Man in Christ. Paul M. Bassett CHRISTLIKENESS. Christlikeness refers to a state or quality of being like Christ. Such phrases as "mind of Christ" (Phil. 2:1-5; 1 Cor. 2:16), "love of Christ" (2 Cor. 5:14; Eph. 3:19), and "crucified with Christ" (Gal. 2:20; 5:2) direct one's attention toward a biblical concept of Christlikeness. These phrases call to mind such characteristics as meekness, obedience, and submission. In the minds of some, meekness may revive the words "Jesus meek and mild," popularized a few years ago by some writers, which made Jesus a rather frail caricature of what He truly was. Meekness as seen in the life of Christ was an expression of self-control. He did what duty demanded even though He had within His power the ability to avoid suffering. At His arrest when one of His companions drew a sword in an effort to protect Him, Jesus commanded, "Put your sword back," and then declared that should He call upon His Father, He would "at once" dispense to the Lord Jesus "more than twelve legions of angels" (Matt. 26:52-53, Niv). This type of meekness is restrained, controlled, and demanding. It is meekness with a purpose. Closely associated with meekness are obedience and submission. Obedience characterized the life of our Lord from the earliest account of an interpersonal relationship. When but a youth, 12 years of age, after He had lingered behind in the Temple and His parents had returned for Him, He "went down to Nazareth with them and was obedient to them" (Luke 2:51, niv). It is impressive that some of the mystics who spent a lifetime endeavoring to imitate Christ placed obedience and submission at the top of the list for Christlikeness (Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, bk. 3, chap. 13). In the Lord's Garden experience, as His earthly ministry was terminating, He demonstrated again these leading characteristics of His life—meekness, obedience, and submission—as He prayed, "Father, if you are willing, take this cup from me; yet not my will, but yours be done" (Luke 22:42, niv). Another phrase, "The mind of Christ," deserves some comment. When Paul professes to "have the mind of Christ" (1 Cor. 2:16) he probably means he understands the thought and intention of Christ, therefore is qualified to instruct the Corinthians. But when he exhorts the Philip-pian believers to possess the mind of Christ, he uses a different word, phroned, "to be minded," a word more germane to our subject. To be like-minded with Christ is to follow Him in the surrender of our rights, becoming an obedient servant "even unto death" for the sake of a lost race (Phil. 2:5-8). It is a simple transition to move from a consideration of the "mind of Christ" to the "love of Christ." Paul speaks to the Ephesians of being "rooted and grounded" in love (3:17) and of knowing "the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge" (3:19). Love does not eliminate knowledge, but goes beyond the learning process. Christlikeness requires the use of one's mental faculties, but love relates more to the emotions. How does a Christlike person react under stress? Such stresses as those caused by rejection, when one's motives are of the highest and purest order; suffering without mitigation over extended periods of time; and ridicule that appears to be unrelenting, may be common to some lives. Peter makes it clear that patience in
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unjust suffering is the highest level of Christlikeness (1 Pet. 2:19-24; 4:12-16). Although sometimes overlooked, mature Christlikeness is not only a gift of the Spirit in inner sanctification, but a learning process produced through a study of God's Word, through a more perfect understanding of the teachings of Christ, through the discipline of suffering, and through the modeling of brethren in the Lord who have achieved a measure of Christlikeness in their Christian living. See spirituality, christian, discipleshir mind of christ.
See theology, systematic theology. J. Kenneth Grider
Christians believe that Jesus Christ is both human and divine, that He unites these two distinct natures in one Person, and that this union is permanent and eternal. The implications of this affirmation include: (1) that in Jesus we have a full and final revelation of God; and (2) that in Him redemption from all sin is possible and available. Christology may be approached either from the standpoint of the Synpotic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), or from the standpoint of the Gospel of John and the Epistles. The one is inductive (from "below"), the other deductive (from "above"). The 12 disciples knew Jesus first as Teacher or Rabbi (Mark 1:22), and only later as Messiah (8:29), Lord (12:35-37), and Son of God (15:39; John 20:28). The young Church, however, soon found it necessary to proceed in the opposite direction as well. Thus it was that John began his Gospel: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. ... And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us" (1:1, 14; cf. Rom. 1:1-4; Gal. 4:4; Heb. 1:1). Survey of basic issues. Central to Christology is the doctrine of the Incarnation, that God became man, and that thus in a unique sense, "God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself" (2 Cor. 5:19). Questions inevitably arise: (1) When and how did the Incarnation take place? (2) In the Incarnation did the Eternal Son (John 3:16-17) unite with an existent being or with generic human nature? (3) What is the relationship of Jesus to the Triune God? (4) Was Jesus truly and fully human? Development of the doctrinal idea. The classic creedal statement of Christology emerged out of an atmosphere of ferment and conflict. J. L. Neve's summary of the first four ecumenical councils is helpful: Christ is divine, vs. Arius (Nicea, a.d. 325); Christ is human, vs. Apollinaris (Constantinople, a.d. 381); Christ is one in Person, vs. Nestorius (Ephesus, a.d. 431); Christ is two in nature, vs. Eutyches (Chalcedon, a.d. 451). The Nicene and Chalcedonian creeds have stood the test of time. Such creeds are evidence of stability amidst centuries of change. Their function is to exclude extreme or erroneous positions and to describe a Christian consensus. Numerous attempts have been made, especially in the modern and contemporary periods, to displace these creeds. Such efforts have been largely unsuccessful. It is true that these creeds should be translated into relevant terms. However, the NT teaches that Christ was truly human and truly divine, that He was one Person, the Eternal Son, and that His divine and human natures will remain real and distinct forever. The biblical position affirms the identity of Jesus with God and with man. This suggests that true understanding of Christology is not possible without reference to the doctrine of the Trinity. In the richness of His being, God is triune in essence, revealed as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In the Incarnation, it was the Son—not the Father nor the Spirit—who assumed human nature in the womb of the Virgin Mary. This union was accomplished by the Holy Spirit. "And the angel said to her, The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God'" (Luke 1:35, rsv).
In that moment of conception a unique Person began to be: Jesus of Nazareth, the Son of God and the Son of Man. "The union of the divine and human natures in Christ is a personal one— that is, the union lies in their abiding possession of a common Ego or inner Self, that of the eternal Logos" (Wiley, CT, 2:180). The Scriptures make it clear that Jesus lived a fully human life, even as He understood that He and the Father were one (John 10:30). "And Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man" (Luke 2:52). He was tempted just as we are (Heb. 4:15); He learned discipline and obedience through suffering (5:7-8); He struggled in agony with the Father's will (Luke 22:39-46). Nevertheless, through all these experiences, Jesus knew that He was the Father's unique Son (Mark 1:11; 9:7) and would soon resume His place with the Father (John 17:5). The form of His consciousness was human, its content divine (William Temple). See CHRIST, HYPOSTATIC UNION.
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