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References. Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume two, 1231–45. Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature, vol. 1, 7–8. New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: "South African Poetry", pp. 1183–84. Akkadian Akkadian, an *Afro-Asiatic language, was spoken in Iraq from ca. 2,500 B.C.; actual material of relevance dates from 612 B.C. The language seems to have been spoken from the early third millennium to the beginning of the Christian era; for a long period it was the accepted language of international diplomacy and a lingua franca in Syria, Iran, Turkey and Egypt; from the seventh century this role was taken by Aramaic. The fullest surviving text of *Gilgamesh—with its strong homosexual relationship between the hero, Gilgamesh and his companion Enkidu—is in Akkadian. This makes the Akkadian version of Gilgamesh the first surviving *epic poem of gay relevance (predating the surviving text of *Homer's Iliad which dates from the *Hellenistic period). The poem survived by being an *epigraphical inscription in cuneiform (a system of over 500 signs predating the alphabet). It dates from before 612 B.C. when the Palace of Ashurbanipal was destroyed. The Gilgamesh tablets in the Palace contain the only complete surviving version of the poem. *Prostitution associated with religion round the cult of *Ishtar occurred (see *Hieroduoleia) and a poem from this background is *"My hire goes to the promoter". Love poems existed (see Kindlers neues Literatur Lexikon, vol.18: "Akkadische Liebeslieder") though whether any were homosexual is not known. The Middle Assyrian laws referred to homosexuality. There were two dialects of Akkadian: Assyrian and Babylonian. As a spoken language Akkadian was replaced by Aramaic from 800 B.C. Homosexuality is discussed in Vern L. Bullough, "Attitudes towards deviant sex in ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of Sex Research, vol. 7 no. 3 (1971), 184–203. An anthology of the literature is Ben R. Foster, Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature, 2 volumes, Bethesda, 1996. For a discussion of the literature see Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume one, 253–76. On the language see the entry in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. On ancient religious aspects of homosexuality see "Ancient Near Eastern and Western Antiquity" in Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol, and Spirit. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality: see "Mesopotamia". Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 2, 427–35. Albanian Albanian, which is a language isolate and does not belong to any known language family, is spoken in Albania and Serbia and Montenegro and in the former province of Yugoslavia, Kosovo (which, from the late 1990s, was under United Nations control after a disastrous war brought about by the breakup of the former Yugoslavia). Material of relevance dates from 1853. Situated in the Balkans, Albania is opposite southern Italy, adjoining Serbia and Bosnia. The religion of Albanian speakers is *Islam (Kosovo, now 90% inhabited by Albanian speaking Muslims, was formerly inhabited by Serbo-Croat speaking Serbians and contains many old *Orthodox monasteries.) The area was occupied by the Turks for several centuries and was part of Yugoslavia after 1945, being occupied by Italy during the Second World War. Oral poetry is extremely rich. The earliest reference to homosexual poetry is in an article by *Johann Georg von Hayn published in German in 1853, which includes translations of gay poems by *Nesin (or Nesim) Bey. Another article in German referring to gay oral poems was published in German in 1904 by *Paul Nacke. *Oral epics and *epics are also relevant; these may be very ancient having been handed down by word of mouth. *Pobratim or blood brotherhood exhibited in them is relevant. The bisexual English poet *Byron visited Albania in the early nineteenth century with his friend John Cam Hobhouse (Hobhouse wrote a book, Journey to Albania; repr.) On Albanian literature see Everyman Companion to East European Literature, “Albanian” pp. 507–08. Surrounding languages are south *Slavic languages to the north and east and Greek to the south; these languages as well as Turkish have all influenced Albanian literature. Many people in this part of the world are bilingual or even trilingual. There have been strong trading links with Italian to the west. References, Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume two, 1513–1531. Arabic Arabic is one of the languages of the *Afro-Asiatic family. Arabic poetry comes from the Middle East and north Africa, from Morocco to Iraq, and was formerly spoken in Portugal and Spain. Homosexual poetry dates in written form from ca. 622. Arabic poetry referring to homosexuality emerged out of *oral traditions and, in written form, dates from the rise of *Islam, the religion of most Arabic speakers, from 622, the date of the writing of the Islamic holy book, the *Koran. Written in Arabic, the Koran is in a poetic form of prose. Islam quickly spread by conquest to Iran, north Africa and Spain, though *Christianity was and is also a major religion in many Arabic-speaking lands. (Islam is now the majority religion in Afghanistan, Malaysia and Indonesia and a major religion in India; in all of these countries Arabic may be read or spoken since the Koran is read in Arabic.) The writing down of the Koran stimulated the writing down of poetry (all Arabic poetry until 622 was transmitted orally). The *Umayyad period (661–750), the first major period of written Arabic poetry, was also a major period for gay poetry. *Islamic law from 622 became the dominant form of law from Iran to Spain. Syria, Egypt and Iraq. *Anthologies may date from ca. 870. *Drinking songs—called *khamriyya in written form—are a source of gay poems. A *debate on love featured homosexual poems used as examples of love poems and this debate shows homosexual love accepted as normal in earlier centuries and many Arabic speaking cultures. Most poets remain in manuscript so delineating the corpus of gay poetry is difficult (see *Manuscripts—Arabic). Syria. Syria's crucial position in relation to trading routes passing though the country (to the Mediterranean Sea) has made it a bridging culture between Greek and Islamic culture. The capital *Damascus has long been a cultural center: see *Philosophers—Arabic. In the *Ummayad period Syria was especially rich in gay poets. Poets: see *Abu Tammam, *al-Mutannabi, *al-Wasani, *Beha al-Din Zoheir, *Walid II. Egypt. Egypt has a huge gay literary history centered on the capital *Cairo where the *Arabian Nights—which contains homopoetry—was first published. *Alexandria, the port at the mouth of the Nile on the Mediterranean, is the second largest city and dates back to Greek times and is names after a homosexual or bisexual Greeek speaking king. Arabic was only spoken following the Islamic invasions of the seventh century; before this Egyptian, also an Afro-asiatic language, was the common language. Greek and Latin were the languages of prior conquerors of Egypt and Turkish was spoken following the Turkish occupation of Egypt (1517–1798). *Ibn Sana al-Mulk compiled the first gay Egyptian Arabic anthology as such called *Dar at-Tiraz. *Ibn al-Farid is an outstanding *Sufi poet. In the twentieth century *Taha Husayn wrote the first modern article on homosexuality in poetry and *Muhammad Haddara has written an outstanding recent study of early gay poetry. (See *Overview—Egyptian for poetry in ancient Egyptian; *Overview—Greek is also relevant.) For the Mamluk period (1200–1550), see Wright, Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature, pp. 158–91. Iraq. The capital *Baghdad was the capital of the Islamic empire during the *Abbasid period when the famous homosexual poet *Abu Nuwas wrote. The poet *Di'bil ibn 'Ali wrote a brilliant poem on the gays of the city. According to some the poets, *Bashshar is second in fame as regards homosexuality but *Abu Tammam, who also lived in Egypt, is also notable. Both Abu Nuwas and Abu Tammam were first edited by *Abu Bakr al-Suli and later by *Hamza al-Isfani, the first editors of Arabic homopoetry in written form. Other outstanding Iraqi poets include *al-Bahili, *Muti' ibn Iyas, *Ibn Dawud, *Ibn al-Hadjdjadj and *al-Ramidi. Recent literary scholarship has turned to the long neglected area of *oral poems. For biographical sources see *Biography—Arabic. Spain, Portugal and North Africa. Arabic was the language of the rulers of the Iberian peninsula from 711 to 1492. Arabic is still spoken across Saharan Africa in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and in Egypt. Spain. Spain (called Andalusia: from the Arabic "al-Andalus", "the west") was invaded in 711 by Berbers from north Africa who spoke the Arabic of Morocco (not the classic Arabic of the Koran). A *romance dialect was spoken in Spain and the first Spanish poems are *kharjas, which were initially the final lines of the Arabic *muwashshah genre. Some kharjas are homosexual in inspiration, as are muwashshah. In 1492 the Arabs were expelled but, for the six centuries prior, Arabic civilization in Spain reached splendid heights. A huge homosexual literature was produced but most poets remain in manuscript or inadequately edited. The eleventh century was a major period of Arabic literature in Spain. Notable poets include *Ibn Kuzman (only edited this century by *A. R. Nykl), *Ibn Sahl (whose lover *Musa is known), *Ibn Khafadja, *Abu Hayyan and *al-Ramadi. *Ibn Sa`id complied a notable anthology, including many homopoems. *Ibn Hazm from *Cordoba, then the largest city, wrote a notable *treatise on love. Many poets have written one or two outstanding gay poems. Poets have become more widely available through translation in the twentieth century: see the gay anthology *In Praise of Boys. Arabic love poetry of Spain influenced the *troubadours and, through them, Arabic ideas on love reached Europe (see *Debate on love—Arabic.) The journal al-Andalus covers the country. References for Spain. See Monroe, Hispano-Arabic Poetry, pp. 3–71: overview of Arabic poetry in Spain in general. Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, volume 1, pp. 599–603: see "Arabic Literature in Spain" under "`Arabiyya" (overview of literature). For a recent overview of Spain see Salma Khadra Jayyusi, The Legacy of Muslim, Spain, 1992, a detailed cultural analysis which openly discusses homosexuality. Morocco and Tunisia. There were close connections between Andalusia and these countries. *Al-Fath ibn Khakan, who produced an anthology with homopoems, was from Spain but died in Morocco and *Al-Nafzawi in Tunisia produced a notable erotic *sex manual with homopoetry quotations. *Tangier in Morocco on the north coast adjacent to Spain has been a center for western gay visiters and some have chosen to live there and written poetry. See also *Arcadie 103–04 (July-August 1962), 451–53, re two poems in L'anthologie de la litterature marocaine, arabe et berbere. In *Gay Histories and Cultures, the article "Morocco" gives the social background. Portugal: see *Ibn Muglana, *Ibn Sara. *Marc Daniel (pseud.) has written a fine overview of Arabic homosexual poetry overall, one of the most brilliant surveys in any language. Critical comment has grown: see *Critics—Arabic. A general literary survey of Arabic literatures is H. A. R. Gibb, Arabic Literature: an Introduction, second edition, 1963. Transliteration of Arabic presents special problems since words have been transliterated in several ways: see *Transliteration of Arabic for more detailed information. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Great Soviet Encyclopedia vol. 2, 216–18: see "Literature" under the entry "Arabic Culture". New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: see "Arabic Poetry". Summers, Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage: see "Middle Eastern Literature: Arabic". Gay Histories and Cultures:see "Arabic Literature". Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 1, 277–322. Aramaic Aramaic, an *Afro-Asiatic language sometimes called Chaldean, was a lingua franca in the middle east from Egypt to Iran from the seventh century B.C.— when it replaced Addadian in this role (see *Overview—Aramaic)—until the first centuries of the *Christian era. Material of relevance dates from ca. 30. The language is close to Hebrew (see *Overview—Hebrew). Apart from the Targums, translations of the *Old Testament from Hebrew into Aramaic, little material in Aramaic has survived and material from the time of Jesus has only recently come to light in the material of the Dead Sea Scrolls, early manuscripts mainly of the Old Testament found in Israel and preserved by the dryness of the climate. The Targums were originally oral works but some survive in written form. Some parts of the Old Testament are in Aramaic; *"David's Lament for Jonathan" is a relevant poem. There are many commentaries on the Old Testament in Aramaic. Aramaic was the spoken language of *Jesus Christ (died ca. 30) and some words used by him are in the *Gospels, the major source of the teachings of *Christianity. There are some who believe the Gospels were originally compiled in Aramaic and the Greek version came later. Works in *Manichaeism are in Aramaic and the *Jewish mystical work the *Kabbala is partly written in it. On the language see "Aramaic" in G. A. Buttrick, editor, The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 1962, vol. 1; there were several dialects. Syriac was an eastern dialect of Aramaic (see *Overview—Syrian). Aranda (also called Arunta) Aranda, an *Australian Aboriginal language, is the language spoken around Alice Springs in central Australia. Material of relevance dates from ca. 1908. Oral poems and songs relating to *initiation ceremonies are relevant. Aranda is now also spelt Arrente. Aranda is one of the Australian aboriginal languages with the greatest number of speakers (at least several hundred). The Aranda people have been one of the most studied tribal groups in Australia with one of the earliest ethnographies of a tribal people being written on them by Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen: The Aranda, 1927. The first written work discussing the Aranda in any detail was Spencer and Gillen's Native Tribes of Central Australia, 1899. *Géza Roheim has written extensively on their culture from a *Freudian view, including homosexuality. Their songs, some homoerotic, have been extensively studied by one of Australia's greatest anthropologists, *T. G. H. Strehlow, who was brought up with Aranda children and became fluent in the language from childhood and whose collection of Aranda artefacts is in the Strehlow Research Foundation in Alice Springs. *Initiation ceremonies involving homosexuality have been analyzed by *Les Hiatt and *Ronald Berndt. *Androgyny has been seen in their myths. Early works of relevance are by *B. Schidlof (active 1908) and an analysis of their culture was written in German by Carl Strehlow, T. G. H. Strehlow's father, a Lutheran missionary from Germany who first sought to convert the Aranda to Christianity. Robert O. Lagace, Sixty Cultures (New Haven: *Human Relations Area Files), 1977, pp. 16–26 has a concise survey of Aranda culture. Adjoining Aboriginal cultures such as the Walpiri and the Pintupi have religions strongly relating to Aranda religion. See *Singing and Dancing in Tribal Cultures, *Songs—Aranda, *Ritualized homosexuality. Armenian Armenian, a *Caucasian language in the *Indo-European group, has an ancient and rich poetry tradition and strong literary traditions. Christian *hymns date from at least ca. 500. The language is spoken in Armenia but there is a large overseas diaspora. *Christianity also came early to Armenia ca. 300 and there are two branches of the religion, an Orthodox church and a *Catholic rite. Armenian poetry has been strongly influenced by Persian poetry; *Sa'di and *Omar Khayyam have been translated (as has *Homer's Iliad). See *Anonymous poems—Armenian for poems based on Persian mystical traditions. Wandering *troubadours called ashik were common. One, *Sayat Nova, was the subject of a film by the homosexual Georgian *Parajanov; see also *Nahapet Khutchak. Illustration of poetic manuscripts should be considered (see Parajanov) and here are very rich oral traditions. Armenia was under Russian rule from 1827 to 1990. Georgian is an adjoining language, see *Overview—Georgian. See also *Overview— Persian since Persian strongly influenced Armenian and the language predates Armenian. For information on writers see Kevork B. Bardakjian, A Reference Guide to Modern Armenian Literature 1500–1920(2000). Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Great Soviet Encyclopedia vol. 2: see "Literature" under "Armenian SSR". Everyman Companion to East European Literature: "Armenian", 508–12. Other references. Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume one, 791–802. Australian Aboriginal oral cultures Australian Aboriginal languages are spoken in Australia by the indigenous inhabitants. Though Australian Aboriginal oral literatures are very ancient, recorded material of relevance only dates from ca. 1900. Some 250 languages were spoken in 1788 at the time of the British occupation of Australia (languages were in some twenty-nine language families) but some 150 languages only are now spoken. *Ritualized homosexuality has been reported widely across north and central Australia; it may have covered the continent and possibly Tasmania as well (*phallic rituals were recorded in South Australia in the last century and *initiation ceremonies in New South Wales). On sexuality in general in Aboriginal cultures, which is much more sex positive than in the white population, see "A Perspective on Aboriginal Sexuality" in Ronald M. Berndt, Love Songs of Arnhem Land, Sydney, 1976, pp. 3–15. *Censorship and English *laws have been inhibiting factors in the elucidation of Aboriginal male homosexuality overall (male homosexual acts were prohibited from 1788 to the 1980s in most states and this prohibition held for Aboriginal cultures; indeed it was only in 1967 that Aboriginal people were admitted into full citizenship). In traditional Aboriginal cultures, song permeates Aboriginal life. There are the grand song cycles of the ritual ceremonies and there are ordinary songs made up to sing around the campfire (see, for example, *Tabi songs). *Songs, *chants and *oral poems in connection with ritual ceremonies are the main works for consideration (e.g., in Aranda, the most widely spoken language as recorded by *T. G. H. Strehlow). Ritual ceremonies among males occur in a naked state in most surviving cultures in the center, north (in Arnhem Land) and west (especially in the Kimberleys) of Australia, the only parts where Aborigines still live in tribal cultures. *Géza Roheim, a disciple of *Sigmund Freud, has remarked on the repressed homoeroticism of all male initiation ceremonies in Aboriginal cultures. Sacred cycles contain hidden levels of meaning only revealed to initiated men and then only over long periods. Secret languages used in *initiation ceremonies exist (these are mentioned in books on the languages overall by R. M. W. Dixson). Male initiations were carried out over periods of months and spread over years and when women were absent. *Bisexuality is common in central Australian cultures and is connected to myths (see *snake and serpent motifs, *Songs—Yirrkalla). Fertility and renewal of the land are at the heart of many Aboriginal religions. Stories about creative creatures with large phalluses who sexually penetrate everything (called Djanggawul) in north Australia are common. *Mimi spirits come out at night and have large penises and are simliar pansexual creatures (poems about such creatures need to be considered). *Serpent myths frequently have phallic connotations. The Kunapipi myth—widely dispersed across northern Australia—also has submerged sexual aspects (see *R. M. Berndt). Yams and fertility ceremonies relating to them occur in initiation ceremonies among the Tiwi (who live on islands to the north of Darwin) and may relate to similar ceremonies in Papua new Guinea; yams grow in central Australia and are involved in rituals. The bullroarer is associated with initiation ceremonies across Australia as in Papua New Guinea and subincision occurs widely (this is an operation where, on the underside of the penis, a long cut is made, said to represent a vagina in some cultures by some interpretators). *Bawdry material is very likely at all levels since *Puritanism did not exist among the Australian Aborigines before the coming of the whites. Campfire songs with possible erotic references present great possibilities for research. Gossip songs and heterosexual love magic songs occur. There are usually both sacred and secular song cycles of the same material. As much as forty percent of the vocabulary of some languages has been said to be of sexual words (Professor *Les Hiatt, University of Sydney, to the author, 1987); such vocabulary has not usually been recorded by missionaries. Only a small number of ethnographies—studies of cultures—exist (e.g., of the Aranda, Murgin, Tiwi). For individual languages see the following entries. Northern Australia. See *Songs—Murngin, *Songs—Oenpelli language, *Songs—Yirrkala, *Songs—Tiwi. Western Australia. *Songs—Kimberley languages,*Tabi songs (re Pilbara languages), *Songs—Tiwi, *Songs—Kutatja. Central Australia: see *Overview—Aranda, *Oral poems—Pintubi, *Songs—Walpiri, *Shamans (re Warramunga) and *Thomas Jangala (re Anmatjarra). North Queensland. *Songs—Dyirbal. Exact area unknown: see Initiation songs and chants—Yaroinga. On homosexuality in general, see "Peopling the Empty Mirror: The Prospects for Lesbian and Gay Aboriginal History" in Gay Perspectives II, ed. Robert Aldrich, Sydney, 1992 pp. 1–62 (with bibl. in the footnotes at the end). This is the best bibliography so far (see especially p. 51, footnote 13). For bibliographical information on the Australian Aborigines overall, consult John Thawley, Bibliographies on the Australian Aborigine, 1987, and the Annual Bibliography of the Institute of Australian Aboriginal Studies, Canberra (published from 1975) now available in computer form and on the *Internet. The Institute—known as AIATSIS—is the premier institute for the study of Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander cultures. For an overview of the literary traditions see Margaret Clunies-Ross, "Australian Aboriginal Oral Traditions", Oral Tradition vol. 1 no. 1 (1987) and the Kindlers reference below. For another overview see Australian Encyclopedia, 1965 edition; under "Aborigines" see "Music, Poetry, Songs" (by *T. G. H. Strehlow). In the 1977 printing see "Oral Literature" under "Aborigines" (by Alice M. Moyle). For earlier material on literature see "Australian [Aborigine]" in Joseph T. Shipley, Encyclopedia of Literature, New York, 1946, pp. 74–78. In the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians see "Aboriginal Music and Dance" under Australia. A map of the Aboriginal tribes of Australia is included in The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia, 2 volumes, edited by David Horton, Canberra, 1994, which also has articles on many aspects of Aboriginal cultures. Directory: 2008 2008 -> Exam 1 of Computer Networks (ice 1230) 2008 7 2008 -> Program description 2008 -> Curriculum Vitae Museok Song 2008 -> Word Wall Chants Use these as fun ways to practice word wall words at home! 2008 -> Rockettothesky 2008 -> "Unique " "dfo " "Glide " "Country" "Other" "Nations" "X. Affected" "Locations" "Rivers" "Began" "Ended" "Days" "Dead" "Displaced" "Damage usd." 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