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References. See Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 123–25. Canada
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References. See Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 123–25. Canada. French has only been spoken from 1604. In the early twentieth century *Emile Nelligan may have been gay. A group of French Canadian poets emerged from 1970 who deal with male homosexuality in their poetry: see *Paul Chamberland, *André Roy. *Montreal and *Québec are the most important cities. A journal Sorti (1982+; defunct) has emanated from French Canada. For the social background see *Paul-François Sylvestre (who is also a poet), Bougérie en Nouvelle-France (1983). Switzerland. French is also spoken in Switzerland in the south west of the country; Geneva and Lausanne are the main cities. The Swiss gay journal *Der Kreis (1933–1967), the longest running gay periodical to date, had French material; its full title was Der Kreis = Le Cercle = The Circle. With personal advertisements in English and “physique” photos from European and United States photographers it even reached out to an English speaking audience, especially in the United States. *Blaise Cendrars has written poetry of relevance. *Edmond Fazy (pseud.?) appears to have been a Swiss translator from Turkish to French of gay poetry. *Steven Finch is a translator into English who lives there. On French literature in general see Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume three: the whole volume is a history of French literature; detailed indexes are included. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Summers, Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage. Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 1, 383–467. Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature, 402–03: "France (1970–1945)". Georgian Georgian is spoken in Georgia in the Caucasus, the region between the Black and Caspian seas. The language is from the *Caucasian language family. Gay poetry dates from ca. 1200. Original literature developed from the fourth century when the country became Christianized and the *Gospels were translated; the Christian church in Georgia is a self-governing branch of *Orthodoxy. A rich gay poetry heritage, influenced by Persian traditions, is strongly suspected. The great Georgian *epic poem and national epic by *Shota Rustaveli, The Man in the Leopard Skin, has strong homosexual material. The Persian epic, the Shahnama of *Firdawsi, was early translated. *Sayat Nova wrote in Georgian besides his native Armenian. The twentieth century poets *Paolo Iashvili and *Titsian Tabidze seem relevant. The film maker *Parajanov has made relevant films. Compare *Overview —Armenian. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 17: under "Georgian SSR" see "Literature". Everyman Companion to East European Literature: see "Georgian", 525–27. Criticism. Lang, Guide to Eastern Literatures, 181–96. Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume one, 803–21. German German, one of the *Germanic languages, a subgroup of the *Indo-European language family, is spoken in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The langauge was also formerly spoken in overseas colonies in Africa and in the Pacific (eg in Papua New Guinea, under German control in the northeast part of the island until 1918); German is a second language in eastern and southeastern Europe. Material of relevance dates from ca. 1150. Germany. *Male bonding in old German literature was strong, especially in the work of the *minnesingers and works using *Arthurian material. This continued later in the cult of *friendship in the *Aufklarung (Enlightenment; 1700–1800; see also *Elisabeth Frenzel). There have been notable readings of literature from this point of view: see *Friendship—German. The rediscovery of the Greek *Mousa Paidike and its editing by *C. A. Klotz in the mid eighteenth century made the Greek gay poetry heritage fully accessible and German scholars were well aware of Greek and Latin gay poetry from the *Renaissance onwards since both languages were part of a gymnasium education (see *Overview—Greek, —Latin). The Romantic period. *August Platen (1796–1835) is the first outstanding gay German poet; he was vociferously attacked by *Heinrich Heine about his homosexuality and lived in Italy for much of his life, dying there. A noted biography of Platen is by *Peter Bumm and a brilliant *bibliography is by *Fritz Redenbacher. The great German *Romantic poet *Goethe wrote some homosexual poems. Under the influence of *Orientalism such translators as *Rückert and *Hammer-Purgstall first brought into German poetry translations of Persian, Turkish and Arabic homopoetry. *Karl Theodor German translated Shakespeare's sonnets into German (published ca. 1823) beginning a cult for the sonnets of Shakespeare in German translation; there have been many translations into German. In 1838 the Swiss *Heinrich Hössli published the first German anthology *Eros: Die Männerliebe der Griechen, in response to a debate with his friend *Heinrich Zschokke. *Paul Derks has made the major literary study to date of a single period 1750–1850 (which includes the time of Hössli). In the nineteenth century, *Richard Wagner wrote the librettos of his operas in poetry; his last opera, Parsifal, is especially relevant but interpretations of his main work the four opera work Der Ring der Nibelungen (The ring of the Nibelung) have many possibilities from a homosexual angle (eg in terms of the work of *Jung). The Bavarian King *Ludwig the Second fell in love with him and wrote ardent love letters which have survived. The nineteenth century poet *Mörike seems to have been gay and the *Munich group of poets warrant attention as well. *Karl Ulrichs who lived in the last part of the nineteenth century and was the first German gay activist, also wrote poems and has been the subject of a notable biography by *Hubert Kennedy. Many works of German erotic *bibliography, which begins with *Hugo Hayn in 1875, have been published; Hayn later collaborated with *Alfred Gotendorf to produced the largest, most detailed, erotic bibliography known in any language.
The circle centered on the gay *symbolist poet *Stefan George called the *George Kreis was a gay group of poets, and George’s journal Blätter für die Kunst (1892–1919) was the first German literary journal with significant gay content. Stefan George wrote love poems to the youth *Maximilian Kronenberger; the critic *Marita Keilson-Lauritz has written a fine study of his homosexual work. The *Leipzig *publisher *Max Spohr published the first modern gay books in German (including gay poetry) from 1896 until his death in 1906. From the late nineteenth century, *Whitman became available in German where there was, as in France, intense discussion about his homosexuality (see *Eduard Bertz). *John Henry Mackay was a noted *pederastic poet of this time. The twentieth century. *Adolf Brand, editor of the major gay cultural journal Der *Eigene (1896–1932), also wrote poetry and compiled an anthology *Die Bedeutung der Freundesliebe (published in 1923). Many *journals containing poetry were published in the period 1896–1933 when a large gay culture flourished in Germany. A number of literary histories of erotica appeared in German from 1908 but most, such as that by *Paul Englisch, slighted homosexuality (see also *Herbert Lewandowski). When the *Nazi regime came to power one of their first acts was the burning of the Hirschfeld Institute for Sex Research's library in 1933 and homosexuality entered a dark period until 1945. Stefan George fled to Switzerland where von Kupffer, also a major gay artist as well as poet and anthologist, had long lived. However, the journal *Der Kreis (1932–67) published in Switzerland, continued publishing German material, including much gay poetry. After the war Germany was divided into West Germany under United States, British and French control and East Germany under Russian domination. Berlin, in the Russian area, was under joint control of all four allied powers, with the western half of the city under United States, British and French control and the eastern half under Russian control; the western part was was to remain an island (officially under United States, British and French control) within East Germany until 1989 when east and west Germany were reunited following the downfall of the *Communist regime in the east. Male homosexual acts remained illegal through the Nazi period and were only finally legalized in West Germany in 1969 though they were legalized in *Communist East Germany from 1953. The postwar period. In 1964, *Ernst Günther Welter published the first comprehensive gay bibliography which was unfortunately carelessly compiled. The major study of *bisexuality in ritual and myth by *Hermann Baumann, published in 1955, yields much material on literature. *L'amour bleu (translated from the French) is the most comprehensive historical anthology in German. Several *anthologies have emanated from *Berlin in the *gay liberation period: they are notable for having an *anarchistic streak, a characteristic associated with Berlin in the years when West Berlin was cut off from West Germany. Germany, reunited in 1989, has outstanding *libraries and several gay *archives. Research is being carried out at several large *universities. The capital was moved from Bonn to Berlin in late 1999. The *Lexikon homosexuelle belletristik, being compiled at Siegen by *Wolfgang Popp and others, surveys gay writers mostly prose writers. In 1982, *Manfred Herzer published a non-literary bibliography of German works. *Hubert Fichte is a noted recent literary theorist and *Detlev Meyer a recent poet of note. *Verlag rosa Winkel in Berlin is the foremost gay publisher and *Prinz Eisenherz bookshop in Berlin is the largest European gay bookshop (its catalogs are bibliographical documents). Following the reunification of Germany, the reorganization of the library system which followed, should greatly help literary research (see *Libraries and archives—German).
Poets of relevance include *Grillparzer, the librettist *Schikaneder, *Josef Kitir, *Emmerich Stadion-Thannhausen and the twentieth century poet *Rilke. *Hammer-Purgstall was a noted early orientalist and *Johann Hayn wrote the first work on Albania (discussing homopoetry). *Erich Lifka is a notable gay poet after World War Two while *Norbet C. Kaser is a recent poet who has provoked recent interest. The English language poet *W. H. Auden lived in Austria for the summers of the last years of his life. Austria produced a huge literature on sexuality in the early part of the twentieth century—see *Sigmund Freud, *F. S. Krauss, *Bilder-lexikon—and the gay philosopher *Ludwig Wittgenstein, one of the most influential of twentieth-century philosophers, was Austrian. The rise of the Nazis in Germany in 1933 preceded an authoritarian period in Austria from 1934 and the Nazis entered Austria in 1938, leading to the eclipse of gay culture until after the war. The HOSI gay group in *Vienna, the capital, publishes a journal Lambda Nichrichten. *Johannes W. Paul is a poet currently writing. Michael Handl and others, Homosexualität in Osterreich, 1989 (bibl., pp. 236–39) is a work which mainly deals with the contemporary period. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 97–99: see "Austria". Summers, Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage: see "German and Austrian Literature". Switzerland. Despite harboring the *Puritanical *Calvin, Switzerland produced *Heinrich Hössli who published the first Germany gay anthology in Switzerland in 1838. The British poet, researcher and writer *John Addington Symonds lived in Switzerland to escape the repressive British *laws. The Estonian born poet *Elisar von Kupffer, who edited the second German gay anthology (as noted above), spent most of his life at Minusio in Italian speaking Switzerland. Both J. A. Symonds and Elisar von Kupffer attest to the fact that Switzerland has given refuge to gays who could not live in other countries. Von Kupffer's lover *Dr. Eduard von Mayer also wrote poetry. As already noted above, *Stefan George, too, to escape the Nazis fled to Switzerland where he died. The American journalist and novelist *E. I. P. Stevenson, who published the first major survey of gay culture in English, also died there. The philosopher *Friedrich Nietzsche lived in Switzerland for much of his life and *Vladimir Nabokov died there. *Der Kreis (1932–67), the world's longest running gay journal was published from Switzerland edited by the *actor *Rolf Meier. It included much poetry as well as serious essays. Basel and Zurich are the main cities in the northern German speaking part and an exhibition of the history of gay Basel was held in 1988 (see Forum no. 3, 1988, 137–38). The catalog of this exhibition titled Mannergeschichten: Schwule in Basel seit 1930, edited by Kuno Trueb and Stephen Miescher was published in 1988 (Basel: Basel Zeitung) and is 230 pages long and contains many photos of gay venues and life. Geneva and Lausanne are the main cities in the south west French speaking section; Italian and Romansch (official languages with French and German) are spoken in the south east. See also *Gottfried Keller. For Swiss laws see *Law— Switzerland. Greek Greek is spoken in Greece and was formerly spoken in Turkey, Egypt and southern Italy where there were Greek colonies. Greek homopoetry is known continuously from ca. 700 B.C. onwards. The corpus of ancient Greek literature as it survives is only a small part of what actually existed. Much has been destroyed or *lost and undoubtedly many lost works dealt with homosexuality. The first centuries of gay poetry in Greek. There has been much critical discussion as to whether *Achilles and Patroclus, the two central protagonists of *Homer's *Iliad (ca. 700 B.C.), which begins recorded Greek literature were intended to be seen as lovers. The poets *Hesoid (who wrote about the hero *Hercules) and *Archilochus (who survives only in fragments, many showing desire for males) may have lived at the time of Homer. Many Greek *myths which survive in literature refer to the homosexual loves of the gods. Amongst poets, *Alcaeus of Mytilene (born 620 B.C.) inaugurates a *lyric tradition associated with homosexuality which continues to this day. In the next century *Anacreon (ca. 570–485 B.C.) wrote poems about homosexual lovers but appears to have been *bisexual. *Theognis (active 544 B.C.) was an outstanding gay poet and a work related to his works, the *Theognidea, contains what many *scholars regard as the first gay anthology. Many poems in the Theognidea while attributed to Theognis, are probably by others; they are the first known example of the copying of an ancient poet which makes the work of later *editors difficult (see *fakes). (In Persian, for instance, the corpus of works of *Omar Khayyam, known as the Rubaiyat is one such.) In the twentieth century the Scottish poet *Douglas Young comprehensively searched for Theognis's surviving manuscripts and came up with many previously unknown, a process which could be applied to the manuscripts of other poets. In the fifth century *Pindar (518–438 B.C.) wrote homoerotic poems inspired by, among others, the cult of athleticism associated with the gymnasium and the Olympic Games. The first surviving *critic of Greek homopoetry in gay terms was *Aeschylus, though homopoems survive on Athenian vases of the fifth century (the names of males desired homosexually inscribed on the vases have been cataloged by *David M. Robinson). A vigorous *debate on love was started by *Plato in the fourth century B.C. in his *Symposium (in which the validity of homosexual love was accepted); this continued into the Christian period, when the *Gospels of *Jesus Christ form part of the background against which poetry was written. Poems and *hymns addressed to Jesus can have an underlying homoeroticism, especially from a *Freudian point of view (such works exist in many languages). Plato was also a poet. Homosexuality was a feature of ancient Greek comedies on the stage and figures prominently in the plays of the comic writer *Aristophanes (active 427 B.C.) in the form of *transvestism. In the fourth century B.C. Athens at the time of Plato was the dominant Greek city, a position it was to lose in the *Hellenistic period to *Alexandria in Egypt. Poems associated with homosexual *dancing boys, who sang at all male dining and drinking occasions, date from this time; the dancing boys frequently sang bawdy *songs, a tradition which relates to other languages of the middle east. In the fourth century the Greeks fought the Persians and the contiguity of Greek culture with eastern cultures such as Persia (and later Arabic and Turkic cultures) may be one reason why homosexual dancing boy songs occur in all and as far as India; however just where such customs and others originated is lost in time. The Hellenistic period 323 B.C.—146 B.C. *Theocritus and other *Alexandrian poets wrote brilliant gay poetry in the third century B.C. in the city of Alexandria. This city was founded by the possibly homosexual *Alexander the Great, at the mouth of the Nile in Egypt, to which country Greek civilization had spread (Alexander conquered lands as far as India). Greek culture also extended to southern Italy at this time and was present in Turkey— where The liad takes place and where the Greek presence in *Istanbul was very ancient. Theocritus established the *pastoral tradition, with male shepherds conversing, sometimes amorously. He has been widely translated (including into such languages as Turkish) and was widely influential in European poetry from the *Renaissance. Greek homopoetry influenced Latin poetry after 146 B.C. when Rome subjugated Greece and the Hellenistic period ends. The Roman conquerors were infatuated with Greek civilization and were frequently biblingual (see *Overview —Latin for the extent of this influence). The anthology called the *Anacreontea (compiled from 323 B.C. to 899 A.D.), which dates in inception from the Hellenistic period contains a selection of gay poems. They are joyous and fun-loving like much ancient Greek homosexual poetry. The collection of Greek poems, the *Palatine Anthology, a major surviving corpus of ancient Greek lyric poetry, contains as one of its fifteen books, the *Mousa Paidike, an important gay anthology compiled ca. 117–30 by the Greek poet *Straton. Much of the material of the Mousa Paidike, though dating from the reign of the probably exclusively gay Roman Emperor (and poet) *Hadrian, comes from the Hellenistic period. The poems in this work are erotically directed towards youths by older men in a symposium context, in the same joyous and fun-loving context as the preceding anthologies. The Palatine Anthology also contains poems dating from the Hellenistic period and a few homosexual poems are in other books apart from Book 12. *Meleager (active 100 B.C.) is a typical poet of the Mouse Paidike. A *fragment of a poem on the theme of a lion hunt of Hadrian written by *Panchrates survives from the late second century A.D. However, this marks a dramatic decline in homosexual poetry coinciding with the rise of *Christianity which was anti-homosexual. Tropes such as the *cupbearer and *down on the face associated with homosexuality date from before 300 B.C. The Byzantine period. The homopoems in the Palatine Anthology were handed down in *manuscript (mainly by supposedly celibate monks from the Christian period) until the compilation of the Palatine Anthology manuscript ca. 980 by *Constantine Cephalas in Istanbul. The city, the largest Greek speaking city, was then under *Byzantine rulers, the capital of what was formerly the Roman empire having been moved there in 324. It is now the capital of Turkey. The Palatine Anthology was finally published by *Friedrich Jacobs in 1813 thus making this corpus widely available (though the Mousa Paidike was first edited separately by the German *C. A. Klotz in 1764 and the erotica by *J. J. Reiske in 1752). The influence of the Palatine Anthology on European poetry, which has been enormous, has been studied by *James Hutton. Istanbul was then called Constantinople after the Emperor Constantine who had made it the capital and it remained in Greek hands until the Turks captured the city in 1453; Greeks fleeing the city in the centuries prior took with them Greek manuscripts, which has enabled many ancient Greek works to survive. The city had been much weakened by its capture during western European crusades to bring the Holy Land, now Israel, under Christian control. The early Byzantine poet *Nonnus wrote an epic of the loves of *Dionysus, god of wine. Otherwise the Byzantine period represents a drying up of homosexual poetry in Greek. The Renaissance. From the *Renaissance onwards, the Greek classics, including Homer and especially Anacreon, who was very popular, were edited and published in book form, at first in Italy and then gradually in all the countries of Europe. This resulted in the heritage of ancient Greek homosexual poetry gradually becoming widely known in European scholarly circles since most scholars knew Greek and all learnt Latin (into which translations were immediately made as with other ancient Greek writers). Commentaries, almost invariably in Latin and usually accompanying the Greek text, date from this period—see *scholars. The first major modern work discussing Greek gay culture, including poets, was an article by *M. H. E. Meier published in 1847, though *Heinrich Hössli discussed the Greeks and included a generous selection of poets in translation in the first German gay anthology, *Eros: Die Männerliebe der Griechen (Eros: The Male Love of the Greeks; 1838). Greek poets have been included in all comprehensive European culture originated historical gay *anthologies from Hössli on. Meier's article was relied on by *John Addington Symonds in the loate nineteenth century and translated into French in the first half of the twentieth century (with the footnotes incorporated into the text) by *Georges Hérelle. The work of *Paul Brandt, however, constitutes the major discussion of ancient Greek homopoetry to date; *Félix Buffière has also written comprehensively. The *Byzantine period has been barely examined by scholars and there has been no known comprehensive search even for material for gay poetry in manuscript (as has occurred for Latin—see *Thomas Stehling). Modern Greek. There is a large gap in important homopoets between *Nonnus and the best known twentieth century Greek poet *Constantine Cavafy who wrote from the 1890s to 1935. Cavafy's biography by *Robert Liddell is outstanding, while his poetry has only recently been completely and satisfactorily edited by *George P. Savidis, a problem which has bedevilled many homosexual poets. Nevertheless, evidence has emerged that the Greek Romantic poet *Solomos was gay while *Napoleon Lapathiotis, who committed suicide in the 1940s, was a poet on the *decadent model. An outstanding contemporary Greek poet is Cavafy's successor, *Dinos Christianopoulos, whose poetry is much more explicitly erotic that Cavafy. The great left-wing poet *Yannis Ritsos is known by oral tradition to have had gay experiences and probably to have been basically gay, at least for part of his life. The Russian gay poet *Gennady Trifonov has been translated into Greek as has the Russian *Essenin, as well as such classics as the sonnets of *Shakespeare and the works of *Whitman. The background to the ancient debate on love in the early Christian period has been brilliantly investigated by *Michel Foucault whose work goes a long way towards explaining the decline of homopoetry (as well the loss of so much from the pre-Christian period) due to the rise of *homophobia with the coming of *Christianity. The 1982 anthology *Amerikanike homophylophile poiese (1982) translated American gay poets of the *gay liberation period into Greek and constitutes a modern Greek anthology. Another anthology is the brilliant collection of oral poems, containing many homosexual ones, compiled by *Mary Koukoules, titled *Loose-tongued Greeks, 1983, a landmark in the collection of erotic bawdy. *Rembetika came from Turkey mainly after the war with the Turks in 1922 when Greek civilization in that country came to an end (following the war, which the Greek lost, there was an exchange of citizens with Greeks in Turkey going to Greece and Turks in Greece going to Turkey; at the same time the Christian Greek Oxthodox Patriarchate was allowed to remain in Istanbul though the Church’s headquarters, the cathedral of St Sophia became a museum). Rembetika contain homosexual references, representing a continuation of the long ancient Greek tradition of oral poetry. *Constantine Trypanis, whose poetry shows some homoerotic interest, has recently written the finest survey of Greek poetry ever. Other notable contemporary Greek gay poets include *Nikos Aslanoglou and *Loukas Theodorakopoulos. See also *Influence—Arabic, —Turkish as interconnections between these languages and Greek have been strong. There is now a large Greek-speaking diaspora overseas (notably in the United States and Australia where Melbourne has one of the largest Greek speaking populations of any city): see *S. S. Charkianakis for a poem on Cavafy written in Australia. Greece follows the Code Napoléon and there is a legal age of consent for homosexual acts of 15. 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