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Africa and the Africans in the Age of the Atlantic Slave Trade
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- Chapter 21, The Muslim Empires Summary
- Key Concepts: The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders
- The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids
- Sail al-Din
- Nadir Khan Afshar
- Humayan
- Nur Jahan
- Chapter 21, Quiz Questions
- Essay Questions: The Muslim Empires
Africa and the Africans in the Age of the Atlantic Slave Trade What model did the Portuguese establish for the exploitation of Africa? Describe the structure of the Atlantic slave trade. Consider the volume of slaves by century the places to which slaves were shipped, and the origins of slaves within Africa. Why did Europeans participate in the Atlantic slave trade? To what extent was slavery a feature of African society prior to the coming of the Europeans? How was it intertwined with the development of more centralized states? Evaluate the causes for the end of the Atlantic slave trade? Chapter 21, The Muslim Empires Summary: Much of Africa followed its own lines of development between the beginning of the 15th and 19th centuries. The rise of the West and the Western-dominated economy, however, was a powerful force in influencing the course of African history. The Atlantic slave trade predominated in economic affairs after the middle of the 17th century. The forced removal of Africans had a major effect in some African regions and was a primary factor contributing to the nature of New World populations. African culture became one of the important strands in the development of American civilizations. Despite the rise of the West and the slave trade, nearly all of Africa remained politically independent and culturally autonomous. Among the important trends, Islam consolidated its position in sub-Saharan and east Africa, while in many parts of Africa, independent states formed and expanded. Key Concepts: The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders: In the 13th century, the Mongols made it possible for the Ottoman Turks to move from a role as servants of the Muslim world to become its masters. The Ottomans quickly moved across the Middle East and into Europe, although the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II came only in 1453. By 1566, they ruled all of the former eastern Roman Empire. Their land empire was matched by mastery of the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman state granted great independence to the military aristocracy to which it owed its success. These nobles, granted conquered lands, eventually came to threaten the sultans’ power. The Janissaries, infantry made up largely of conquered peoples, formed the new military core of the empire. Early sultans ruled directly, as political and military leaders. Later, the sultans ruled through their viziers, and through manipulation of the powerful groups within the empire. As the empire grew and the sultans became surrounded by ritual and luxury, the power of the viziers grew. Mehmed II rebuilt and improved Constantinople. Suleyman the Magnicent’s Slueymaniye mosque was built at the apex of Ottoman culture in the 16th century. The city was restored to its position at the point of commercial exchange between east and west. Merchants and artisans were again central to the city’s culture. The Turkish language became the official language of court and literature. The long success of the Ottoman Empire has been shadowed by the disruption caused by its decline. Like other empires, as conquests ended, some of the Ottoman dynamism was lost. Oversight of the vast empire was hampered by poor communication, and widespread corruption among officials resulted. As concerns about succession led to the sequestering of royal offspring, succeeding emperors were increasingly ineffectual. The power of the sultans was usurped by other in the empire. Weakness within the empire coincided with external pressure. The battle of Lepanto in 1571 ended Ottoman naval dominance. As the Portuguese rounded Africa, they were able to bypass Ottoman control of the spice trade. Silver form Latin America led to crippling inflation in the Ottoman Empire. A brief period of able rule in the 1600’s strengthened, but did not completely restore, the integrity of the empire. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids: The Safavids, like the Ottomans, came to power on the Eastern fringes of the Muslim world, as champions of Islam. However, they embraced Shi’ism, and struggles with the Ottomans were intensified by religious conflict. Established by Sail al-Din of a family of Sufi mystics, they converted the Turks near Ardabil. Their Shi’a followers, called the Red Heads, grew in numbers. The victories of the Safavid leader Isma’il led him to be named shah in 1501. The Safavid expansiono led to war with the Ottomans. The great Safavid defeat at Chaldiran in 1514 did not end their power, but did stop the spread of their empire and Shi’ism. Shah Tahmasp I, a Turkic successor to Isma’il restored the stability of the empire. Shah Abbas I, the great brought the empire to its apogee. The shahs managed to turn the Turkik leaders that challenged their power into a warrior aristocracy. Shah Abbas built up slave regiments, as had the Ottomans. Although the Safavid rulers were of Turkic background, they adopted Persian as the court language. Their worldly power was buttressed by claims to be imams, or successors of Ali. They also used mullahs to add religious support for their rule. Shi’ism came to be an integral part of Safavid distinctiveness. Abbas I was a major patron of craft and trade revival, as well as the arts. At Isfahan, his capital, the court dominated city life. Magnificent mosques and royal tombs decorated the city. The Safavid and Ottoman empires shared many cultural traits. In both, as the nobility grew in power, their exploitation of the peasants increased. Shahs and sultans were important patrons of the arts and crafts. Women were limited in both their public roles and even in creative pursuits allowed to them in other cultures. Women of Turkic and Mongol backgrounds lost ground as their cultures were changed by contact with Arabic and Persian traditions. At court in both empires, women could wield great power, though indirectly. It appears that women could retain some control over inherited property. In spite of Abba’s achievements, his empire was short-lived. Weak successors were easily manipulated, although such shahs as Abbas II were more able rulers. In 1722, Nadir Khan Afshar usurped the throne, inaugurating a period of unending conflict. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India: Babar, founder of the Indian Mughal dynasty, showed the same leadership ability and cultivation of the arts as Shah Abbas I and sultan Mehmed II. His main goal of reclaiming his kingdom in central Asia was never achieved, but he managed to win much of northern India. His son Humayan was an able successor. However, the dynasty reached its high point under Humayan’s son Akbar. Although a minor at his succession, Akbar was able to hold on to his throne. His ambitious program, aimed at unifying his empire, included social reforms, the creation of a new faith, and erasing divisions between Mughals and Hindus. His proclamation of a new religion in 1582, Din-i-Ilahi was intended to marry Islam and Hiduism. Like the Safavids and Ottomans, Akbar granted lands to his nobles, yet he left many Hindu rulers in place. Akbar’s social reforms included improving the plight of the urban poor, and changing marriage customs to protect women. He outlawed sati, and tried to ease the seclusion of women. Akbar’s ambitious plans were only partially successful. Jahangir and Shah Jahan followed him in succession, but did little to build on his achievements. Under the Mughals, India fell behind in the sciences, although exports of the textile industry remained important. Although Jahangir and Shah Jahan were much more devoted to pleasure than Akbar, their patronage of the arts was substantial. Many of India’s finest monuments date from their reign. Mughal architecture blended Persian and Indian traditions. Nur Jahan, the wife of Jahangir, took the power her husband neglected. Her influence brought able men to court, and was used to help charities. Mumtaz Mahal, consort of Shah Jahan, had a smaller role, but her tomb the Taj-Mahal is the grandest of India’s monuments. For other Indian women, reforms did little to improve their status. Aurangzeb, son of Shah Jahan, was an able ruler but devoted his energies to expansion and cleansing Islam of Hindu impurities. He was very successful in the first ambition, but uprisings occurred in the north while he was on campaign in the south. His attack on the position of Hindus was even more disruptive, and overturned Akbar’s attempt to bring peace. Although the Mughal empire was large at his death, it was weakened by rivalries. Marrata risings and the emergence of new sects added to the strain. Attacks on the Sikhs turned the Din-i-Ilahi sect from original goal of blending Hindu and Muslim traditions, to a rigidly Hindu, anti-Muslim religion. Key Terms: Mughal Dynasty Taj Mahal Imams Sail al-Din Gun Powder Empires Sikes Janissaries Red Heads Hagia Sophia Golden Horn Chapter 21, Quiz Questions 1) Which of the following statements concerning Ottoman naval power is most accurate? A) The Ottoman Empire never developed a navy, thus were unable to control the Mediterranean or challenge the growing naval supremacy of the West. B) Powerful Ottoman galley fleets captured major island bases in the eastern Mediterranean, but were unable to prevent Western advances in the Indian Ocean. C) The Ottoman Empire was sufficiently powerful at sea that until the 18th century they were able to monopolize the Arabian Sea. D) The Ottomans retained their naval dominance in the Indian Ocean, but almost immediately lost all of their Mediterranean possessions. E) The Ottoman Empire used both Western and Chinese naval technologies and established naval bases in Italy. 2) What permitted the Janissaries to gain a position of prominence in the Ottoman Empire? A) Their control of artillery and firearms gave them prominence over the aristocratic Turkish cavalry. B) Their control of the bureaucracy made them indispensable to the operation of the empire. C) As members of the royal family, they had access to the sultans. D) They rapidly gained control of the mosques of the Ottoman Empire and were able to define religious orthodoxy. E) Islamic law defined their authority as written in the Quran and the Sunna. 3) What did the Ottomans do to Constantinople following its fall in 1453? A) The Ottomans destroyed the city and moved their capital to Sophia. B) The original city remained, but in a much reduced condition that the Ottomans did little to restore. C) Soon after its conquest, the Ottoman sultan undertook the restoration and beautification of Constantinople. D) The Ottomans rapidly abandoned Constantinople to the leaders of the Orthodox church who were responsible for its restoration and the construction of significant churches. E) They used it only as a port city but did rebuild the walls and turned the churches into mosques. 4) In what way were the artisans of Constantinople similar to their counterparts in the West? A) They had begun to form a proletariat. B) Like their counterparts in medieval European towns, the artisans were organized into guilds. C) In the capital city of the Ottoman Empire, artisans were free of governmental supervision. D) Like the earlier West, craft production was limited and there were few independent artisans. E) They produced goods that were much in demand in Asia and other eastern markets. 5) Which of the following was NOT a cause for the decline of the Ottoman Empire? A) Local officials began to retain increasing amounts of revenue for their own purposes. B) Oppressive demands of local officials caused the peasantry to abandon their holdings and flee. C) The ability of individual sultans to rule declined. D) The addition of European military technology such as light artillery made the Janissaries so powerful that they could challenge the authority of the sultan. E) Western Europe grew more powerful and challenged their existence. 6) Which of the following represents a difference between the declines of the Abbasids and the Ottomans? A) Only the Ottoman Empire suffered from the intervention of mercenary soldiers in politics. B) Only the Abbasids declined as a result of revolts by peasants and townsmen oppressed by the landed classes. C) Only the Ottomans failed to develop a principle of succession leading to civil strife. D) The Ottomans were at a much greater disadvantage as a result of the more potent threat from the West. E) The Abbasid decline was much more gradual than that of the Ottoman Empire. 7) Why was the battle of Chaldiran in 1514 so important? A) The battle established the military supremacy of the Safavids over the Ottomans and marked the end to eastern expansion of the Ottoman Empire. B) The Safavids were dealt a devastating defeat that checked the westward advance of Shi'ism and decimated the ranks of the Turkic warriors who had built the Safavid empire. C) The combined armies of the Safavids and Ottomans defeated the Mughal armies and ended the policy of expansion undertaken by the Mughal emperors of India. D) The defeat of the Safavids by a Western army reduced the Islamic empire to economic dependency on the West and military inferiority to the other Muslim empires. E) It signaled the beginning of Islamic regional dominance, which would lead to the beginning of secular type governments in the Middle East. 8) What was the status of the Turkish chiefs under the Safavid shahs? A) Unlike the Ottomans, the Turkish cavalrymen were driven from the Safavid empire. B) The former Turkish warriors were replaced entirely by the indigenous Persian nobility who formed a mercenary military force. C) Like the Ottomans, the Turkish chiefs were gradually transformed into a warrior nobility with assigned villages and peasant labor. D) The former Turkish nomads were reduced to slavery, but still composed the foundation of the Safavid military. E) Turkish chiefs were nominally independent of any centralized control or rule. 9) How did the Savafid economy compare to that of the Ottomans? A) Only the Ottoman sultans actively sought to encourage handicraft production and trade in their empire. B) The Ottoman empire benefited in the short run from non-Muslim traders (Christians and Jews) who had extensive contacts with overseas empires that the Safavid empire lacked. C) The Safavid empire made a more concerted and successful attempt to enlarge their market economy, particularly by attracting merchants from the West. D) The Safavid economy, because of the geographical location of the empire, was oriented exclusively toward the East and had no contact with Western merchants. E) The Safavids traded mainly in the Indian Ocean basin, and the Ottomans traded in the western Mediterranean. 10) What led to the rapid demise of the Safavid empire? A) Like the Ottoman Empire, the lack of a principle of succession led Abbas the Great to eliminate all capable rivals, leaving no capable ruler following his death. B) The Safavid defeat at the battle of Panipat at the hands of a Russian army stripped the empire of its military forces just as pressure from outside enemies increased. C) The collapse of the Safavid economy in the 18th century diminished the revenues of the empire to the point that the central government could no longer function. D) The successful conquest of the Ottoman Empire overextended the Safavid resources, so that the central government became increasingly inefficient. E) The threat of Mongol conquest destabilized the government, which led to a revolt of the Janissaries. 11) Which of the following descriptions of the accomplishments of Babur is NOT accurate? A) He was a fine military strategist and fierce fighter who went into battle alongside his troops. B) He wrote one of the great histories of India and was a fine musician. C) He reformed the ineffective Lodi bureaucracy to create a streamlined administration. D) He was a fine musician and designed gardens for his new capital at Delhi. E) He defeated a much larger force in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat, which led to the establishment of his dynasty. 12) Which of the following statements most accurately characterizes the reign of Humayan? A) Humayan was able to build on the reforms of his father and enjoyed one of the most stable and prosperous reigns of the Mughal dynasty. B) Humayan completed the task of crushing opposition to the Mughal dynasty during the first 20 years of his reign, but settled into dissolute behavior later in his life. C) Despite the seeming stability of Babur's reign, his son Humayan was exiled by 1540 and forced to fight to restore the Mughal rule. D) Humayan was assassinated shortly after his accession and the Mughal dynasty was briefly replaced by a Hindu family. E) Humayan fell ill and during his long illness the army mutinied leading to a new dynastic ruler. 13) What was the critical feature of Akbar's new religion, the Din-i-Ilahi? A) It attempted to blend elements of the many faiths with which he was familiar as a means of reconciling Hindus and Muslims. B) It sought to purify the Islamic faith and remove Hindu influences by adopting many of the Sufi teachings already extant in India. C) Like the Safavids to whom early members of the Mughal dynasty fled in exile, Akbar adopted militant Shi'ism. D) Although it retained the formal appearance of Islam, the popular aspects of the new religion were almost entirely Buddhist. E) It was very similar to Zoroastrianism but included elements of Christianity and Judaism. 14) What was the outcome of the Din-i-Ilahi? A) Accepted by Hindus who benefited from the lenient policies of Akbar, the new religion was rejected by the Muslims. B) Accepted by Muslims who saw it as a means of cementing the authority of the Mughals over the traditional Hindu rulers, the new religion was rejected by Hindus. C) The new religion was widely accepted during Akbar's lifetime and became the state religion of the Mughal empire. D) By Akbar's death in 1605, the Din-i-Ilahi was rejected by both Muslims and Hindus. E) It maintained a large number of believers until the introduction of Christianity in the 18th century by the British. 15) What was the state of the Mughal dynasty at the outset of the reign of Aurangzeb? A) Although the cultural level of the empire had declined, the administrative reforms of Shah Jahan renewed the spirit of the empire. B) The status of women in the Mughal empire was higher than at the beginning of the dynasty. C) The Mughal bureaucracy remained efficient and effective, but the military had lapsed into technological conservatism. D) The Mughal bureaucracy was bloated and corrupt, the army was backward in weaponry and tactics, and the peasants and artisans had seen living standards fall. E) Affairs of state had taken precedence over military issues due to the demands of the bureaucracy. 16) What was the impact of Aurangzeb's religious policies? A) Aurangzeb's religious policies gravely weakened the internal alliances between Hindus and Muslims and disrupted the social peace that Akbar had established. B) Aurangzeb's religious policies succeeded in removing Buddhism from India. C) The emperor succeeded in reestablishing the political and social dominance of the Hindu majority in India. D) Aurangzeb's introduction of Christianity to India began the process by which millions of Indians were converted to the new religion. E) More freedom for all religious groups with the exception of Christians 17) What was the state of the Mughal empire following Aurangzeb's death in 1707? A) The Mughal empire had shrunken so much during Aurangzeb's reign that the dynasty controlled only Bengal. B) The empire included more territory than ever before and there was greater religious homogeneity than earlier in the reign. C) The empire was far larger than earlier, but control and state revenues passed increasingly to regional lords who gave little more than tribute payments to the emperors. D) The empire collapsed in the face of a Safavid invasion from the Indus River valley. E) The empire managed to arrange treaties with western powers, which in the long run provided enough resources for the empire to grow. Essay Questions: The Muslim Empires Discuss the social and political organization of the Ottoman Empire. Compare and contrast the causes for decline and collapse in each of the Islamic early modern empires. Compare and contrast the social and political organization of the Safavids to that of the Ottomans. How did the religious complexion of Mughal India differ form that of the other Islamic empires? What impact did religious diversity have on the Mughals? 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