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Societies in Search of Themselves

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Societies in Search of Themselves:

As Latin American countries freed themselves of Spain and Portugal, they were more open to other influences. European culture was popular, influencing literature and the arts. Romanticism inspired the works of Antonio Goncalves Dias and Martin Fierro. Latin in the century, realism was more influential, with novelists depicting the bleaker side of life. The culture of the mass of Latin Americans showed great continuity.
Social changes were slow in coming. Women gained little ground, either at home or as professionals. An important exception was in schools, where girls as well as boys received public education. The schools also created a demand for teachers, which women often filled. The society of castas remained largely in place. Indians were often at odds with central governments, in spite of some attempts to better their situation. Politics and the economy were still controlled by a small group of white leaders.

The Great Boom, 1880-1920:

The decades between 1880 and 1920 saw enormous economic growth in Latin America. Based primarily on exports, it was supported by a growing alliance between established wealth and new urban leaders. In each country, a specialty crop in high demand brought in plentiful revenue, but made the national economies dependent on international markets. Moreover, neighbors went to war to control key commodities. Rapid expansion in the economy drew foreign investors, creating another area of dependency.
Mexico and Argentina illustrate responses to economic expansion. Porfirio Diaz was elected president of Mexico in 1876. Centralization allowed the building of an industrial infrastructure. Positivists, cientificos, influenced Diaz’s policies. Progress came at the expense of improvements in the rural sector. Diaz ruled for 35 years, during which critics were methodically suppressed. Argentina took a different approach. Buenos Aires dominated, with one fourth of the national population. European influence was extensive, producing a distinctive culture. Socialist and anarchist groups emerged, inspiring strikes and walkouts. A Radical party came to power in 1912, demonstrating the flexibility of Argentina’s political structure.
Following the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States was increasingly involved in Latin America. U.S. investors were heavily involved in Cuba’s sugar exports. The Spanish American War was fought over Spain’s remaining colonies of Puerto Rico and Cuba. The war ended with American occupation of the two islands. The United States supported Panamanian independence, and then gained rights over the Panama Canal. While the completion of the canal was a source for pride for the United States, Latin Americans viewed the expanding power to the north with suspicion.

Key Terms:

Simon Bolivar
Monroe Doctrine
Manifest Destiny
Porfirio Diaz
Positivism
Mexican American War
Benito Juarez
Miguel de Hidalgo
Spanish American War
Panama Canal

Chapter 25, Quiz Questions
1) In what way was Latin America different from other regions that remained outside the direct control of Western imperialism?
A) Latin America had no economic relationship with the West.
B) During the century of imperialism, Latin America cast off previous colonial controls through revolution.
C) Unlike other regions, Latin America had no previous political relationship to the West.
D) The ideals of the Enlightenment had little or no impact on Latin America.
E) It achieved rapid industrialization through the use of capital from the United States.
2) Which of the following was NOT one of the beliefs that Latin America shared with the West during the 19th century?
A) Belief in "progress"
B) Belief in reform
C) Belief in absolute monarchy
D) Belief in private property
E) Belief in democratic ideals
3) Which of the following events was rejected by Creole elites as a model of revolution because of excessive radicalism?
A) American Revolution
B) French Revolution
C) Independence movement in Portugal
D) Napoleonic Wars
E) English Civil War
4) What was the impact of the Haitian independence movement on Latin America?
A) It served as a model for national independence movements throughout South and Central America.
B) It demonstrated the power of Creole elites in leading revolutionary movements.
C) It led immediately to a general abolition of slavery throughout Latin America.
D) Creole elites viewed it with horror as an example of general social upheaval.
E) It led to freedom for slaves in Latin America and the United States.
5) In what way was the government of independent Brazil different from those of the other newly created Latin American nations?
A) Brazil was a monarchy rather than a republic.
B) It was the only government that immediately abolished slavery.
C) It was ruled by the popular majority of former slaves and people of mixed race.
D) It was the only republican form of government established in Latin America.
E) It abolished all forms of racial discrimination.
6) Which of the following statements is most accurate?
A) While most leaders sought to maintain Catholicism as the official religion of the new states, some sought to end the exclusion of other faiths.
B) Roman Catholicism had been the only state religion during the colonial period, and its status as the only permitted religion remained unchallenged after independence.
C) The onset of independence was accompanied by a general trend away from Catholicism toward Protestant religions.
D) The defense of the Roman Catholic church became a rallying cry for Latin American Liberals.
E) As Spanish power declined, so did the power of the Roman Catholic church.
7) Which of the following statements concerning the political organization of Latin America to 1850 is most accurate?
A) Most of Latin America was divided up into consolidated units that mirrored the colonial vice royalties.
B) The excellent colonial road system enabled the creation of larger states after independence.
C) Permanent consolidation and union was more typical of Central America and southern South America than elsewhere.
D) Most attempts at consolidation and union had failed.
E) Traditional tribal boundaries formed the basis for new nation-states.
8) Which of the following characteristics is most accurately associated with the "centralist" theory of government in Latin America?
A) Fiscal and commercial policies set by regional governments
B) Recognition of the political rights of Indians and mestizos
C) Democracy
D) Strong national governments with broad powers
E) Multi-party parliamentary governments
9) Which of the following political principles would NOT be associated with Latin American Liberals?
A) Rights of individuals
B) Secular society modeled on the United States
C) The retention of colonial governors and viceroys
D) Development of commerce
E) Literacy and education
10) In what way were both Liberal and Conservative parties in Latin America similar?
A) Their distrust for Roman Catholicism
B) Their acceptance of federalist political theory
C) Their endorsement of centralist political theory
D) The social origins of their leadership
E) Their beliefs about economic systems
11) Which of the following factors did NOT account for the economic stagnation in Latin America from 1820 to 1850?
A) Slow recovery of the mining sector after wars of independence
B) Lack of a transportation network and port facilities
C) Lack of capital for investment in industry
D) Absence of foreign markets for raw materials
E) A rural and industrial unskilled labor force
12) Which of the following descriptions of the politicians who led Liberal governments in post-1860 Latin America is NOT accurate?
A) They represented a new generation of politicians who had matured after independence
B) They favored expansion of the franchise to Indians and mestizos who represented the "ancient" aspects of Latin American civilization
C) Their inspiration was England, France, and the United States
D) They were firm believers in progress, education, and free competition within a secular society
E) They were intellectual heirs of the European Enlightenment.
13) Under Juan Manuel de Rosas, the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata
A) adopted the federalist program of a weak central government and local autonomy.
B) overthrew the dominance of Buenos Aires province.
C) undertook a program of education and economic training among the Indians.
D) introduced a democratic regime that recognized political diversity without violence.
E) reintroduced Spanish culture and political institutions.
14) Following the 1830s, the literary and artistic style preferred in Latin America was
A) neo-classicism.
B) romanticism.
C) existentialism.
D) Dadaism.
E) impressionism.
15) Which of the following statements concerning the status of women in post-independence Latin America is most accurate?
A) Following independence, women gained little ground and there was virtually no change in the attitudes toward women's proper role in society.
B) Because of their participation in the independence movement, women were rewarded in post-revolutionary Latin America with voting rights and access to political office.
C) Because women in general failed to support the revolutionary movements, they were not included in the massive reforms that followed independence.
D) The status of women actually declined after independence, as they were cut off from areas such as public education that had been available to them in colonial Latin America.
E) Women enthusiastically demonstrated for greater political and social rights.
16) Which of the following beliefs is NOT associated with the concept of "modernization" or "Westernization?"
A) Development was a matter of increasing per capita production in any society.
B) The more industrialized and urbanized any society became, the more social change and improvement were possible as traditional patterns and attitudes were abandoned.
C) Change would take place through radical or revolutionary transitions rather than gradually.
D) As the process occurred, there would be a natural movement toward more democratic forms of government and popular participation.
E) Education was the key factor in any modernization program.
17) The "dependency theory" of economic development is associated with what political group?
A) Liberals
B) Marxists
C) Conservatives
D) Monarchists
E) Positivists
18) Which of the following statements concerning the Díaz government in Mexico is most accurate?
A) Under Díaz, reforms were undertaken that finally began to resolve the inequity of land distribution in Mexico.
B) Labor unrest and political instability decreased significantly by the beginning of the 20th century.
C) Díaz's strongly centralized government actively discouraged foreign investment in Mexican mining and transportation.
D) Under the guise of modernization, the forms of Liberal government were maintained but were subverted in order to keep Díaz in power.
E) All the people of Mexico benefited from the reforms of this era due to the growing economy.
Essay Questions:
The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830-1920

In terms of models of revolution available to Latin Americans in the early 19^th century, which examples were considered acceptable, which unacceptable, and why?

In what ways were the revolutionary movements in Mexico, northern South America, and southern South America similar?

In what ways were the Latin American economies of the 19^th century dependent on the industrialized nations of Europe and North America?

What are the explanations offered for the relative “underdevelopment” of Latin America? Which explanation seems to be the most sufficient explanation?

Discuss the relationship of the United States with Latin America from the mid-19^th century to 1910.

Chapter 26, Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China
Summary:
The parts of Asia still independent from European dominance after 1750 suffered from political decline and form the reactions to new challenges. They also faced the threat of Western imperialism and the West’s industrial lead. China, under the Qing dynasty in the 117^th century, enjoyed growth and prosperity and had the power to limit European intervention. The Ottomans, on the contrary, were in full retreat. Russia and Austria seized territories, North African provinces broke away, and local leaders throughout the empire became more independent. Economic and social disruption accompanied the political malaise. Although the Ottoman rulers did not have a solution to their problems, they regained some strength during the 19^th century by following Western-style reforms. At the end of the century, the foundations of Chinese civilization had been demolished by internal and external pressures.
Key Concepts:
From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey:

Ottoman decline can be attributed to weak rulers in a system dependent on effective leadership. Urban artisans suffered from competition from European goods, resulting in urban riots. With division at the top and the empire’s commercial economy threatened, European neighbors could take advantage of Ottomans back in the Balkans.
Yet the empire survived, in spite of military defeat and territorial loss. This was in part due to European efforts to support the Ottomans against the Russians. Reforms within the empire only further divided the ruling elites. Selim III attempted reforms, which were viewed as a threat to the Janissaries and other groups in power. Mahmud II was more successful in pushing reform. Intentionally spurring the Janissaries to mutiny, Mahmud then suppressed them. His reforms followed Western precedents. The Tanzimat reforms – from 1839 to 1876 – included Western-style universities, legal reforms, and establishment of newspapers. Opening the economy to foreigners adversely affected artisans. Pushing reforms against women’s seclusion, veiling, and polygamy had a limited impact.
The reform movements brought Western-educated Turks to question the role of the sultanate. Abdul Hamid attempted to establish autocratic rule, while still continueing reforms. The coup of 1908 brought the Young Turks – members of the Ottoman Society for Unioin and Progress – to power. The constitution – set aside by Abdul Hamid – was reestablished, with the sultan a figurehead. Internal struggles and Balkan conflicts nearly toppled the movement. Arabs of the Fertile Crescent and Arabia were disappointed to find the Young Turks wished to maintain the empire.

Western Intrusions and the Crises in the Arab Islamic Heartlands:

Arabs of the Ottoman Empire had some commonalities with the Turks, especially Islam, but were left undefended from European attacks.
Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798 opened a new era in reforms between the Middle East and Europe. At the time, Egypt had been led by Mamluk families, headed by Murad. Their defeat by Napoleon was a shock, following as it did centuries of Mamluk military ascendancy. The conflict brought no lasing gains for France, but it was a watershed. Muhammad Ali emerged to lead Egypt following Napoleon’s departure. He reformed the army along Western lines. Egyptian peasants were forced to grow export crops. His successors were unable to capitalize on his partial success. His descendants – the Khedives – ruled Egypt until 1952.
Muhammad Ali’s reforms made Egypt dependent on cotton exports and therefore at the mercy of European markets. European lenders gained control of cotton prices and then shares in the Suez Canal. Courses proposed among Egyptians to solve the problem of weak sultans and khedives included jihad and more borrowing from the West. These two approaches were and are essentially at odds. Afghani and Muhammad Abduh favored the latter course, partly because they valued the Islamic tradition of rational inquiry. The financial problems of the khedives led to greater financial control of British and French bankers. Ahmad Orabi led a revolt in 1882, which resulted in the British restoration of the khedives. British control of the puppet rulers and British financial control began a new era.
Egypt had become involved in wars in the Sudan. Egyptian power, centered on to stop the slave trade. Muhammad Ahmad emerged to lead these opponents as the Mahdi. He launched a jihad against Egypt and Britain, motivated by a desire to purify Islam. His military skill led to control of modern Sudan. Following his death, a successor, the Khalifa Abdallahi, built a state in the region. The British sent Lord Kitchener to Sudan in 1896. The Battle of Omdurman in 1898 ended the Mahdist state.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China:

Manchu , north of the Great Wall, were united by Nurhaci in the early 1600s. His banner armies were a powerful force. For decades, the Manchu learned from the Chinese bureaucratic methods and employed scholar-officials. Called in to help put down a rebellion, they instead took Beijing. Under the dynastic name Qing, they ruled China. The Manchu elite ruled with few changes to court or bureaucratic procedure. They patronized traditional Chinese arts and Confucianism. Kangxi was himself an important Confucian scholar.
Minimal changes occurred in Chinese society under the Manchu, except possibly a decline in the status of women. Rural reforms attempted to bring more land into cultivation and restore the infrastructure of dikes, roads, and irrigation. These improvements were partially successful, yet did little to mitigate the power of landlords. Merchants did well under the Qing as exporters of tea and silk. These compradors linked China to the rest of the world.
Qing decline went along familiar lines. The examination system ceased to fill its role in bringing forward able administrators. Posts could be bought, and cheating was allowed. The abuses were troubling in a system based on Confucian education, intended to engender concern for the people of China. Again, public works in rural areas were abandoned. In the Shangdong peninsula, the Huanghe river was allowed to flood. Thousands died form famine and disease. Banditry, on the rise, signaled a weakening dynasty. Many expected that a new dynasty would now renew the historical cycle.
Yet the new “barbarians” threatening China could not be sinified and absorbed. In the 18^th century, British merchants had turned to opium for export to China. British depended on the trade, but the Chinese saw it as a threat. As much as one percent of the Chinese were addicted, causing widespread social and administrative problems. Efforts to stop the trade began in the 1820s. In the 1830s Lin Zexu was sent to end the opium trade. To do so he confiscated opium, destroyed warehouses, and imposed a blockade. The resulting Opium War ended with Chinese defeat. China was forced to open its ports to foreign trade. Hong Kong was developed as a British outpost. British officials oversea Chinese trade, and the government was forced to accept foreign ambassadors.
Chinese defeat and growing foreign interference led to revolts. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan against the Zing. Although successful militarily, the movement fell apart, especially under British opposition. The Taiping Rebellion challenged not just the Qing government, but also the traditional order. The scholar-gentry thus rallied to the regime. Men such as Zeng Guafan led the self-strengthening movement against Western influence, while embracing Western technology. Manchu attempts at reform were blocked by those resistant to change, such as the dowager empress Cixi. In 1901, the Boxer Rebellion tried to expel foreigners. It resulted in greater European control.
Numerous secret societies formed to end Qing rule, without success. Yet they spawned a succeeding generation of reformers, such as Sun Yat-sen. These revolutionaries targeted foreigners. In 1911, they forced the Manchu from power. The revolution ended the Qing dynasty. In 1905, the civil service exams had been discontinued, after 2,500 years.

Key Terms:

Qing Dynasty
Opium Wars
Puyi
Banner Armies
General Kitchner
Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
Khedives
Suez Canal
Tanzimat Reforms
Young Turks

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