D. Translate the following texts from Russian into English

D. Translate the following texts from Russian into English.

Независимым может называться любое кино, снимаемое вне сложившейся системы кинопроизводства. Так что вообще термин «независимое кино» (а также «подпольное кино» и «экспериментальное кино») можно отнести к части кинематографа любой страны мира. Например, «новая волна» 1960-х годов во Франции и неореализм в итальянском кино после войны могут быть отнесены к этой категории. Также туда может быть смело отнесена и солидная часть отечественного (советского, а затем российского) кино, претендующая на особый «авторский» взгляд. Например, к независимым можно отнести питерских некрореалистов во главе с Евгением Юфитом, а также мастеров безбюджетных жанровых лент времён перестройки вроде Анатолия Эйрамджана.

Но всё-таки эпитет «независимое кино» уместнее употреблять в отношении американской киноиндустрии, поскольку именно в США так очевиден контраст между огромным и богатейшим голливудским кинематографом, ежемесячно издающим сверкающие блокбастеры, и маленьким, бедным, но от того не менее талантливым, независимым кино. И здесь важно не запутаться. Ведь формально к независимому кино можно отнести даже космические саги Джорджа Лукаса, поскольку они производятся на собственной студии Лукаса, и Лукас гордится тем, что в последний раз был в Голливуде в студенческие времена. Но всё-таки бюджет фильмов является тоже важным критерием при определении «независимости». И Лукас со своими «Звёздными войнами» под этот критерий не подходит.

Настоящие «независимые» ‒ это те, что смело экспериментируют и зачастую очень вольно обходятся с консервативными ценностями. Никакого ханжества, никаких предрассудков, никаких политических и религиозных табу ‒ всё должно быть естественно, повседневно, или наоборот, полностью сюрреалистично и абсурдно. Не секрет, что сцены насилия и секса в независимом кино часто переходят грань допустимого в кино массовом. Поэтому несовершеннолетние на сеансы независимого кино не допускаются. Вероятно, что именно по этой причине многие звёзды обычного голливудского кино не соглашаются сниматься в кино независимом. Впрочем, некоторые актёры наоборот считают за честь сняться у «независимых».

В отличие от голливудского кино, производимого возле шикарных калифорнийских пляжей, независимое кино Америки облюбовало себе «каменные джунгли» Нью-Йорка и других городов Восточного побережья США.
(http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/independentcinema)

Появление кинематографа в России

Уже в апреле 1896 года, через 4 месяца после первых парижских кинематографических сеансов, в России появляются первые кинематографические аппараты ‒ например, 6 апреля потомственный почётный гражданин Санкт-Петербурга В. И. Ребриков подаёт прошение в Министерство Императорского двора о разрешении кинематографической засъёмки коронационных торжеств. К тому же событию был приурочен приезд в Россию оператора из компании братьев Люмьер Камилла Серфа, прошение которого о разрешении киносъёмки коронации зарегистрировано 4 (16) мая 1896 года. В этот же день состоялась первая в России демонстрация «синематографа Люмьера» в театре петербургского сада «Аквариум» — публике были показаны несколько о фильмов в антракте между вторым и третьим действиями водевиля «Альфред-Паша в Париже».. 6 (18) мая состоялись первые московские кинодемонстрации в театре Солодовникова и на открытии летнего сезона московского сада «Аквариум»; несколько сеансов до конца месяца были затем проведены в театре московского сада «Эрмитаж».

В мае Камилл Серф осуществляет первые в России документальные кинематографические съёмки торжеств в честь коронации Николая II. Значительная заслуга в пропаганде кинематографа у русской публики принадлежит французскому антрепренёру и авантюристу Шарлю Омону, который представил новое развлечение не только столичной, но и провинциальной публике на Нижегородской ярмарке в июне 1896 года. 4 (16) июля в газете «Нижегородский листок» появляется посвящённая кинематографу статья Максима Горького (опубликованная под псевдонимом «M. Pacatus»).

Кинопоказы быстро стали модным развлечением, постоянные кинотеатры начали появляться во многих крупных городах России. Первый постоянный кинотеатр открылся в Санкт-Петербурге в мае 1896 года по адресу Невский проспект дом 46.

Первые собственно российские съёмки осуществил, видимо, работавший в московском театре Корша артист Владимир Сашин. Купив съёмочно-проекционный аппарат «витаграф», Сашин начал делать короткометражные фильмы, которые с августа 1896 года стали демонстрироваться зрителям после спектаклей театра (многочисленные свидетельства об этом сохранились в московских газетах того времени).
(http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896_)
Chapter 8: Exercises

Newspapers

and the rise of modern journalism

391. 
     
     
392. 
     I. Multiple Choice
     
393. 
     
     
394. 
     Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
     

1. Seditious libel is ____.

a. the practice of muckraking b. defaming a public official's character in print c. typical of the yellow press d. none of the above
2. In the late 1700s, the two types of daily papers were ____.
a. commercial papers and political papers b. political papers and penny papers c. commercial papers and penny papers d. yellow papers and the penny press
3. The penny papers ____.
a. were the first to assign reporters to cover crime stories b. placed political viewpoints on a separate editorial page c. focused on human-interest stories d. all of the above
4. Before the industrial revolution allowed for inexpensive production of newspapers, most papers cost ____ cent(s) a copy.
a. 10 b. 1 c. 6 d. none of the above

5. Who ran the Pennsylvania Gazette, considered to be the best colonial paper?

9. The style of journalism that involves using a more scientific approach, or analyzing news through studies and polls, is called ____.

12. The Village Voice, the Berkeley Barb, the LA Weekly, and the Boston Phoenix are all examples of the ____.

24. Which of the following is true about William Randolph Hearst?

a. he left $2 million to establish the graduate school of journalism at Columbia b. he established a prize for achievements in journalism, literature, drama, and music c. he was the model for the lead character in Citizen Kane d. all of the above

25. The first major wire service was the ____.

395. 
     
     
396. 
     Summary 1 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 8 titled "The evolution of American newspapers" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
397. 
     
     

The concept of sharing news dates all the way back to the beginning of the spoken word. The earliest known record of news, or news sheet, can be traced back to the time of Julius Caesar.

Benjamin Harris produced the first North American newspaper, Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick, in 1690. The paper was banned after one issue. The Boston News-Letter was the first regularly published paper, and began in 1704. This paper mainly covered European news, though it did report some local points of interest. James Franklin started the New England Courant in 1721. This paper aimed to provide news of interest to the common man, not just businessmen or leaders. Considered the best colonial paper, the Pennsylvania Gazette was taken over by Benjamin Franklin in 1729. This paper had the highest circulation in its time and also carried advertisements. Beginning in 1733, the New York Weekly Journal ran articles attacking British rule. In 1734, the printer, John Peter Zenger, was arrested for seditious libel, which means defaming a public official's character in print. Zenger's case was eventually decided in his favor, and was the building block for the first amendment. By the late 1700s, two main types of papers had developed: the commercial paper and the political paper. The political papers, or partisan press, tended to present the views of one political group. The commercial press dealt more with concerns of the economy. The early days of colonial newspapers saw relatively low circulation, as the majority of readership was limited to educated and wealthy men. Very few women operated newspapers, like Elizabeth Timothy, the first American woman newspaper publisher.

By the late 1820s, most newspapers were sold by yearly subscription and read by the more affluent people. But the industrial revolution allowed inexpensive machine production of newspapers, and the penny paper was born. The New York Sun was founded by Benjamin Day in 1833. It highlighted local news, ran fabricated tabloid-like news, and ran fictional stories. Day reduced the price to a penny and eliminated subscriptions, so the paper was available on a day to day basis. The Sun started a tradition of human-interest stories, features that focused on every day people in extraordinary circumstances. One of the first press barons, James Gordon Bennett, founded the New York Morning Herald, an independent paper catering to the middle and working classes. The penny papers were highly competitive and the first to assign reporters to cover stories. Penny papers found their money through advertising and marketing, not political parties like earlier papers. Increasing numbers of advertisements and circulation built up the newspaper industry. Six New York papers founded the Associated Press, or AP, in 1848. The AP was the first major wire service, a commercial organization that sends stories around the world via telegraph lines. As newspapers became a mass medium, news and human-interest stories overtook partisan and commerce items.

Competition and the growing popularity of penny papers brought about the era of yellow journalism. Often regarded as the era of sensationalism, yellow journalism focused on scandals, crime, and disaster. In addition to providing the foundation for tabloid papers of today, yellow journalism provided the start of investigative journalism. It was during this time in the late 1800s when William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World battled it out for subscribers. Pulitzer published sensational stories and sought to make an impartial paper that served the masses.

The New York World suffered little competition until William Randolph Hearst entered the scene. Hearst began with the San Francisco Journal but moved to New York and bought the New York Journal in 1895. Like Pulitzer, Hearst focused on sensational stories and sought to bring in readers with large headlines and attractive graphics. Hearst openly fabricated interviews, stories and pictures. While often suspected of less than honorable business practices, Hearst was seen as a champion of the working man. By the 1930s, Hearst was the head of a media empire with many papers, magazines, radio stations, and film companies.

398. 
     1. The Pennsylvania Gazette, seen as the best colonial paper, was run by ____.
     
399. 
     
     
400. 
     a. Harris b. Franklin c. Douglass d. Zenger
     
401. 
     
     
402. 
     2. Political papers, or the ____, presented the views of one group or party.
     

403. 
     a. commercial press b. impartial press c. opinionated press d. partisan press
     

404. 
     3. Penny papers made their money through ___.
     

405. 
     a. advertising b. business sponsorship c. private donations d. political donations
     

406. 
     4. Which of the following is NOT true regarding yellow journalism?
     

407. 
     a. stories were manufactured b. it was the foundation for investigative journalism c. it began in the late 1700s d. the bigger the scandal, the bigger the headline
     

408. 
     5. Penny papers and the yellow press focused on ____.
     

409. 
     a. political news b. human interest stories c. the economy d. the facts
     

410. 
     Summary 2 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 8 titled "Competing models of modern print journalism" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
411. 
     
     

While it is generally considered a modern ideal to have objectivity in reporting, early papers did report facts with a degree of impartiality. But this began to change by the mid-1800s, and two types of papers evolved: Those with a story model, which dramatized important events, and those that followed an information model, which focused on the facts.

As a consumer culture boomed during the Industrial revolution, facts and impartial news became a commodity. Adolph Ochs, known more for his business skills than his writing ability, brought back the ideal of an informational and impartial newspaper with the New York Times bought in 1896. Ochs sought to set the Times, apart by offering something different from the yellow press. The paper shifted focus from entertainment news and sensational stories to the factual coverage of major events or issues. The Times provided stock, real estate, and court reports, and theater and book reviews. Ochs initially aimed for a more upscale and financially well-off readership, but when he lowered the price of the New York Times to a penny in 1898, he found that the paper began to attract some middle class readers as well. Over the following year, the circulation of the Times tripled.

Even though informational reporting had become the standard by the 1920s, there was still a need for some sort of analysis, or discussion of what the facts meant, especially in regards to more complex issues of the day. With this need for explanation came interpretive journalism. This style seeks to place events within a larger historical or social context, allowing readers to place some meaning to the facts. This development was in large part a reaction to a world that was rapidly growing more complex. Walter Lippmann, 1920s reporter and editor, thought that reporters had three duties: to make current record, to make a running analysis of it, and to suggest plans on the basis of both. Informational reports, interpretive pieces, and opinion columns continue to appear in American papers and are typically separated into different sections so readers do not confuse opinions with straight news. The Depression and the rise of Nazism in the 1930s saw the blossoming of news analysis in magazines and on the radio. This time also saw the advent of the political column. During this time, journalists began to assume a role beyond that of reporter and provided the public with analytical columns.

Events in the 1960s had become more complex, and things like civil rights protests and the Vietnam War were not easily explained. The public began to distrust those who had traditionally held the power, and institutions like newspapers began to lose credibility. Most newspaper journalists in the 1960s were still primarily following the objective model of reporting. The complete impartiality of journalists was increasingly scrutinized. In an effort to respond to the changing times, some reporters sought different approaches. Advocacy journalism is a style wherein the reporter actively promotes a certain viewpoint on an issue, with the idea that objectivity does not adequately address issues of inequality or unfairness. Precision journalism involves using a more scientific approach; analyzing news thorough studies and polls. Through the 1990s, journalists have increasingly relied on surveys and polls to track current hot topics.

Two developments in the early 1980s marked the beginning of a postmodern era of journalism. In 1980, the Columbus Dispatch became the first newspaper to go online. By 2004, more than twelve hundred American newspapers offered some sort of online news service. Next, the appearance of USA Today in 1982 changed the way most major U.S. papers would look. This new style placed an emphasis on style over content, and news items became brief, which appealed to shorter attention spans. The prominent place that newspapers and magazines have held as information sources has been changed by news that comes from television, talk shows, music, and other appear media. Reliable or not, audiences are now getting their news from a mix of media. Newspaper readership is on the decline, particularly among younger readers, and the focus has shifted to electronic media. The Internet in particular presents audiences with near instantaneous news and is changing the face of reporting.

Newspapers generally separate operations into the business division and the editorial or news division. Major daily papers generally devote one-half to two-thirds of their pages to advertisements. Newspapers account for around twenty-two percent of all yearly U.S. advertising dollars. Typically, advertisements are placed first, leaving what is called the newshole. Business operations not only manage the finances, but also advertising, circulation, and promotion. In addition, newspapers have a mechanical department, which is responsible for running the computerized printing and assembling of papers.

In order to supplement local news and features, newspapers draw material from wire services and syndicated features. Agencies like the Associated Press and United Press International submit hundreds of stories and photos each day. Typically, newspapers pay a monthly fee for access to all wire stories. Editors monitor the news throughout the day and choose what they see as the most relevant. Feature syndicates like United Features and Tribune Media Services make deals with papers to provide work from cartoonists and columnists. Newspapers contract to be the only outlet in a region to carry certain cartoon strips, advice columns, or crossword puzzles.

a. news wire services b. advertisers c. feature syndicates d. all of the above

In the past, reporters for the press have been viewed as heroes, watchdogs of the nation, and seekers of truth. This was particularly true during times of war or national crisis. But since the Watergate scandal in 1974, the press has more or less been viewed negatively by the American public. Still, out of all types of mass media, newspapers have played the largest and most long-lasting role in promoting democracy. Investigative reporters have fought battles that few others would do, often being killed in the course of sensitive investigations. All over the world, reporters and editors continue to print controversial or unpopular viewpoints in the interest of uncovering the truth. But there are still concerns for the future of newspapers. Some critics argue that papers are becoming homogenized and leave little room for new methods of reporting. Another concern is that the rising number of newspaper chains will eventually do away with minority and local views and concerns. As younger generations turn to the Internet and television for their news, distinction between electronic and print culture must be reexamined and, most recently, the role of reporter redefined.

412. 
     
     
413. 
     III. Text reviewing
     
414. 
     
     
415. 
     Review the sections "The evolution of American newspapers" Competing models of modern print journalism, "Newspaper operations: Economic demands vs. editorial duties”, "Newspapers and democracy» in your textbook. When you are ready, write a brief paragraph-length response to each of the questions that follow.
     

1. 
   What factors helped newspapers become a mass medium?
   
2. 
   What features defined yellow journalism, and what journalistic practices did it affect?
   
3. 
   Why has newspaper circulation declined over the years?
   
4. 
   What role do newspapers play in a democracy?
   

1. 
   What famous cartoon is shown in these two panels?
   
2. 
   What can you tell about the relationship between Hearst and Pulitzer by looking at these cartoons?
   

1. 
   Describe how the cartoon above contributed to the newspaper war in the late 1800s.
   
2. 
   Describe the rise of Pulitzer and Hearst as businessmen and newspaper owners.
   

1. 
   Which type of journalism most often utilizes the inverted-pyramid style?
   
2. 
   Why are the "least important details" placed at the bottom of the pyramid?
   

1. 
   What are some advantages and disadvantages of using the inverted-pyramid style?
   
2. 
   Describe objective journalism, which utilizes the inverted-pyramid style of reporting.