D. Translate the following text from Russian into English

D. Translate the following text from Russian into English.

Существует несколько версий по поводу происхождения этого понятия. Согласно одной из них, название произошло от цвета газет, печатавшихся на дешёвой бумаге. По другой версии, возникновение связано с разбирательством между газетами «New York World» Пулитцера и «New York Journal» Херста из-за комикса «Жёлтый малыш» (Yellow Kid) в 1896 году. Этот Малыш своим цветом был обязан китайско-японской войне 1895 года, впервые показавшей Западу волну ура-патриотической истерии в японском обществе (yellow peril), которую он и пародировал – желтые малыши имели азиатские черты. Их изображали в неопрятном виде, они также демонстрировали нагловатое поведение.

С процессом зарождения массовой культуры появились такие издания, как «The New York Sun», «The New York Herald» и «The New York Tribune». Уже тогда сексуальная тематика, мотивы смерти, освещение скандалов, преступлений, насилия доминировали на полосах «желтых» газет.

Эти новые возможности, для повышения уровня популярности издания использовал Дж. Пулитцер («The New York World») иУ. Херст («The San Francisco Examiner», «New York Journal» идр.). Тиражи их газет успешно раскупались не только благодаря оперативному сообщению драматических фактов, но и практике создания, так называемых «human-interest stories» — газетных материалов, которые «…больше ориентируются на пробуждение эмоций (сострадание, пафос, юмор, тревога, любопытство), чем на освещение достоверных событий». Пулитцер первым, а за ним и Херст, использовали особый вид сенсационного репортажа, основным методом которого стало смещение центра внимания с самого факта на его подачу.

Notes

198. 
     
     
199. 
     I. Multiple Choice
     
200. 
     
     
201. 
     Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
     

1. What contributed to the slow growth of early magazines in the U.S.?

c. Knickerbocker d. Harpers New Monthly Magazine

a. securing clients b. placing ads c. monitoring single-copy sales d. arranging promotions

18. Which of the following departments provides all the content for a magazine, excluding ads?

a. circulation and distribution b. editorial c. advertising and sales d. production and technology

19. There are more than _______ alternative magazines in the U.S.

a. two thousand b. four thousand c. fifteen thousand d. one hundred

20. Of the eight hundred to one thousand new magazines that start up each year, how many will last past their first year?

a. almost all of them b. over four hundred c. fewer than two hundred d. fewer than fifty

21. The word magazine comes from the French term magasin, which means ______.

a. collection b. storehouse c. advertisement d. periodical

22. The first publication to use the term magazine in its title was ______.

a. Gentleman's Magazine b. National Geographic Magazine c. American Magazine d. Philadelphia Magazine

23. Early colonial magazines documented issues like ______.

a. state vs. federal power b. public education c. taxation d. all of the above

24. Pennsylvania Magazine, which worked to rally the colonists against British rule, was edited by ______.

a. Ben Franklin b. Andrew Bradford c. Thomas Paine d. Hugh Hefner

25. Early European magazines were outlets for ______.

a. political commentary b. fashion illustrations c. both a and b d. neither a nor b

26. By the end of the nineteenth century, technological improvements prompted a drop in magazine price from ______ to ______ a copy

a. $1.00/89 cents b. 35 cents/10 cents c. 50 cents/10 cents d. 75 cents/25 cents

27. In the mid-1980s, the most popular magazine in the world was ______.

a. the Saturday Evening Post b. Cosmopolitan c. Time d. Reader's Digest

28. TV Guide's circulation dropped in the 1980s because of ______.

a. fewer television markets b. the high cost of each issue c. increased competition d. all of the above

29. Which of the following is NOT true of People?

a. it generates its revenue primarily from subscriptions b. it was the first successful mass market magazine launched in decades c. it focuses on short articles with plenty of photos d. its content relies on our culture's fascination with celebrities

30. What caused the downfall of general-interest magazines such as Look, Life, and the Saturday Evening Post?

a. reliance on subscriptions instead of supermarket and newsstand sales b. publishers sold magazines for less than the cost of production c. increased competition for advertising dollars d. all of the above

31. TV Guide is a good example of a ______.

a. magazine with regional editions b. magazine with demographic editions c. magazine that is free of advertising d. business or trade magazine

32. Of the eighteen thousand or so consumer magazines published in the U.S., only about ______ have a circulation greater than one million.

a. one thousand b. eighty c. five thousand d. two hundred fifty

33. Alexander Graham Bell was cofounder of what famous travel magazine?

a. Condé Nast Traveler b. Discover c. National Geographic d. Travel & Leisure

34. The AARP magazine ______ boasted the largest magazine launch ever, with an initial circulation of 3.1 million copies.

a. My Generation b. Modern Maturity c. National Geographic d. none of the above

35. In the 1980s and 1990s, the term cultural minority was used to describe ______.

a. elite readers served by literary magazines b. distinctions regarding gender, age, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation c. both a and b d. neither a nor b

36. Because of the high cost of printing, some magazines have begun to ______.

a. produce fewer copies b. raise prices c. digitally transport copy via satellite to regional printing sites d. none of the above

37. Publications that are considered "outside the mainstream" are known as ______ magazines.

38. The world's largest media conglomerate is ______.

a. Hachette Filipacchi b. Time Warner c. the Hearst Corporation d. Advance Publications

39. The magazine industry has played a large role in transforming the U.S. from a ______ to a ______ society.

a. producer/consumer b. consumer/producer c. diverse/specialized d. none of the above

40. When a consumer buys an individual copy of a magazine at a newsstand, it is an example of ______.

a. controlled circulation b. selective editing c. paid circulation d. all of the above

(http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mediaculture/pages/bcs-main.asp ?v= chapter&s=04000&n=00040&i=04040.04&o=|00020|00030 |00040|00050|&ns=19)

202. 
     
     
203. 
     II. Summary
     
204. 
     
     
205. 
     Summary 1 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 9 titled "The early history of magazines" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

The first magazines probably originated from bookseller catalogues and notices that book publishers inserted into newspapers in seventeenth-century France. Magazine comes from the French term magasin, which means "storehouse." Today, the term magazine refers to a collection of articles, stories, and advertisements that appear in a nondaily (weekly or monthly) periodical, published in tabloid style rather than newspaper style. Political activist and novelist Daniel Defoe (the author of Robinson Crusoe) edited the first political magazine, the Review, which appeared in London between 1704 and 1713. Early European magazines were outlets for political commentary and persuasion, much like the Nation and the National Review in the U.S. today. Also during the eighteenth century, magazines such as the Tatler and the Spectator appeared in England, offering poetry, politics, and philosophy for London's elite. And, in London in 1731, the first publication to use the term magazine, Gentleman's Magazine, appeared, publishing original work by writers such as Samuel Johnson and Alexander Pope.

Magazines developed slowly in the United States because there was neither advanced printing technology nor a substantial middle class, and the working classes didn't read magazines as most adults were illiterate. But, the few early magazines did document issues like taxation, state versus federal power, Indian treaties, public education, and the end of colonialism. Paul Revere worked as a magazine illustrator, and George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Hancock all wrote for magazines. Andrew Bradford started the first colonial magazine in 1741 in Philadelphia. His American Magazine was followed three days later by Ben Franklin's General Magazine and Historical Chronicle. In the 1740s, several magazines were produced in Boston; however, the most successful publications just reprinted articles from leading London periodicals. Thomas Paine, whose 1776 pamphlet Common Sense made the intellectual case for American independence, edited Pennsylvania Magazine, which worked to rally the colonists against British rule.

High delivery costs contributed to the slow growth of early magazines in the U.S. In addition, some postal carriers refused to carry magazine because they were so heavy. Still, the number of magazines in the U.S. jumped from twelve in 1800 to one hundred in 1825. By the early 1800s, most communities had weekly magazines, though content was still reprinted from other sources. In the nineteenth century, specialized magazines devoted to certain categories of readers developed. Many periodicals were religious and boasted the largest readerships of their day. Literary magazines also emerged, such as the North American Review, which published important writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Mark Twain. In addition to religion and literature, magazines also addressed various professions and lifestyles, including agriculture, education, law, medicine, and science. In 1821, Charles Alexander and Samuel Coate Atkinson launched what would become the longest running magazine in U.S. history, the Saturday Evening Post. As the magazine developed into one of the leading magazines of the nineteenth century, its editors published prominent and popular authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne and Harriet Beecher Stowe. The Saturday Evening Post was the first major magazine to include a column that directly addressed women's issues.

With developments in printing technology, improvements in rail transportation, and increases in literacy and public education in the mid-1880s, a market was created for more national magazines. The most influential general magazines of the day were targeted at women. Sarah Josepha Hale founded the first women's magazine in 1828, Ladies' Magazine, which advocated women's rights and education. After nine years, Hale merged her magazine with Godey's Lady's Book, which she edited for the next 40 years. By 1860, Godey's had a circulation of 150,000. Other important national periodicals at the time were Graham's Magazine (published in Philadelphia from 1840-1858), Knickerbocker (the precursor of the New Yorker), and the Nation (founded in 1865 by E.L. Godkin). The Nation is the oldest surviving American political magazine and serves readers whose politics are left of center. Also, the weekly Youth's Companion was one of the first successful magazines for younger readers.

Early magazines were gray and dull in appearance; however, in the mid-1850s, some began printing elaborate engravings and illustrations. Godey's Lady's Book employed up to 150 women to color-tint illustrations and stencil drawings. Harper's New Monthly Magazine offered extensive woodcut illustrations with each issue, and during the Civil War published elaborate battlefield sketches. Mathew Brady popularized photography with his Civil War photos in the 1860s, but magazines and newspapers didn't figure out how to adapt photos to the print media until the 1890s.

5. _____ started the first colonial magazine in Philadelphia.

In 1870, around twelve hundred magazines existed in the United States. By 1905, that number had risen to more than six thousand, most intended for local or regional audiences. However, the rate of failure was high. The Postal Act of 1879, which assigned magazines lower postage rates, led to a surge in magazine production, but about half of the seventy-five hundred magazines launched between 1895 and 1905 failed or merged with other magazines.

By the end of the nineteenth century, technological improvements prompted a drop in the price of magazines from 35 cents a copy to 10 cents a copy, enabling the working classes to purchase national publications. By 1905, there were about twenty-five national magazines available. As circulation skyrocketed, publishers began devoting more pages to advertising. For example, Harper's devoted seven pages to ads in the mid-1880s and more than ninety pages in 1900. And, as jobs and people started moving from farms to urban areas, magazines helped readers imagine themselves as part of a nation, instead of as individuals with only local or regional identities. Ladies' Home Journal, founded in 1883 by Cyrus Curtis, took advantage of these changes by broadening the scope of its magazine. Recognizing that women consumers were a lucrative market, it moved away from the typical women's magazine format of baking and fashion and began to publish popular fiction and sheet music as well as consumer ads. In 1903, Ladies' Home Journal became the first magazine to reach a circulation of one million.

Social reform and the muckrakers

While lowering the cost of an issue could greatly increase circulation, magazine publishers found that content was also very important to readers. Readers were drawn to the issues that the magazines addressed. So, magazines took a cue from yellow journalism and began to crusade for social reform. Some newspaper reporters, dissatisfied with conventional journalism, turned to magazines, where they could write in greater depth about broader issues such as corruption in big business and government, urban problems faced by immigrants, conflicts between labor and management, and race relations. President Theodore Roosevelt called these types of reporters muckrakers because they would crawl in society's muck to uncover a story.

Muckraking became less significant in the mid-1910s as America was drawn into the first major international war. After World War I, the prominent publications were general-interest magazines, which covered a wide variety of topics and emphasized photojournalism – the use of photos to document the rhythms of daily life. The most popular general-interest magazine was the Saturday Evening Post, which had a circulation of ten thousand when Cyrus Curtis purchased it in 1897. Curtis reinvigorated the magazine by printing popular fiction and romanticizing American virtues through words and pictures. By the 1920s, the Post had reached two million in circulation, and by 1946, more than a hundred general-interest magazines competed with television and radio for national audiences.

In 1923, Henry Luce and Britton Hadden developed Time magazine. While the editors sought to provide a "fair" interpretive point of view, critics charged that the magazine became increasingly conservative politically as Time grew more successful. The magazine spurred prominent imitators such as Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report. By 2000, these three major newsmagazines had combined circulations of more than seven million.

206. 
     Summary 3 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 9 titled "The domination of specialization" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
207. 
     
     

The rise of television prompted magazines to move away from mass market publications and toward specialized magazines. This coincided with radio's move to specialized formats in the 1950s. The transition to this new format was helped by the development of regional and demographic editions.

As television advertising siphoned off national ad revenues, magazine introduced regional editions, or national magazines whose content is tailored to the interests of different geographic areas. A good example of this is TV Guide, which because of its content, developed special editions for each major TV market in the country. Other magazines soon adapted this idea to advertising, producing split-run editions that tailored ads to different geographic areas. Time and Newsweek, for example, contain a number of pages of regional ads. Ink-jet imaging, another technological innovation, allows magazine publishers or advertisers to print personalized messages to individual subscribers. Publishers Clearing House and other direct-mail advertisers use this technique to personalize ads.

Another type of specialization is the demographic edition, which targets particular groups of consumers by occupation, class, and zip-code address. Time pioneered this concept when in 1963 it identified sixty thousand doctors who subscribed to the magazine and sent them an edition carrying special advertising from a drug company. Newsweek's annual college edition is another example of a demographic edition. The flexibility of these special editions opened up new sources of income for national magazines. These two marketing strategies – regional and demographic editions – led to massive growth in an industry that many predicted would be crippled by the arrival of television.

The magazine industry also prospered by splitting into a wide range of choices and categories. Magazines are so varied that it can be hard to label them. They can be labeled as general-interest magazines or specialized magazines. Magazines can also be divided into mainstream or mass market magazines and alternative magazines. Another way to group magazines is to divide them by advertiser type, though this neglects magazines that do not carry advertising, such as Ms. and Consumer Reports. However, magazines categorized by advertisements can be grouped into consumer magazines (Newsweek, Maxim), business or trade magazines (Advertising Age, Progressive Grocer), farm magazines (Dairy Herd Management, Dakota Farmer), or noncommercial magazines (activist newsletters, scholarly journals).

One result of magazine specialization is that magazines have begun to delineate readers along age lines, appealing more and more to the very young and very old readers that are often ignored by mainstream television. Highlights for Children, which is advertising free and only sold through subscription, was the top children's magazine in 2004 with a circulation of more than 2.5 million. In the female teen magazine category, which showed substantial growth in the late 1990s, the top magazines included Seventeen, YM, and Teen, all with circulations of more than two million in 2004. Maxim, launched in 1997, is a magazine targeting young men in their twenties, and was one of the fastest-growing magazines of the late 1990s and reached a circulation of more than 2.5 million in 2004.

Perhaps the most dramatic success has come from targeting readers over age fifty, America's fastest growing age segment. The American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)'s magazine Modern Maturity had a circulation of more than twenty million in 2001, which far surpassed the circulation of all other magazines. In 2001, the AARP refined its targeting by splitting Modern Maturity into two magazines-one for readers ages fifty-six to sixty-five, and the other for readers older than sixty-five. The AARP also introduced a new magazine for readers between fifty and fifty – five, called My Generation. Its initial circulation of 3.1 million made it the largest magazine launch ever.

Elite magazines and cultural minorities

In the mid-1960s, cultural minorities referred to elite readers served by non-mass market and literary magazines such as Atlantic Monthly, the Nation, and Poetry. These magazines have often struggled financially to maintain the integrity of their editorial visions in an industry dominated by advertising. The New Yorker, the first city magazine aimed at a national audience, was the most widely circulated elite magazine in the twentieth century. It featured many of the century's most prominent writers, including A.J. Liebling, Dorothy Parker, John Updike, and Garrison Keillor, and serialized some of the finest literary journalism, such as Truman Capote's In Cold Blood. In the 1980s and 1990s, the term cultural minority meant distinctions regarding gender, age, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. In general, the term has been more closely associated with racial and ethnic groups that have been underrepresented in American popular media. African American magazines such as the Emancipator and Reformer date back to the pre-Civil War era. The most established modern magazine publisher for African Americans is John H. Johnson, who started Negro Digest in 1942 on $500 borrowed against his mother's furniture. The profits from the Digest enabled Johnson to start Ebony, a magazine modeled on Life but serving black readers. Since then, the Johnson Publishing Company has also introduced Jet, a pocket-size supermarket magazine that in 2000 had a circulation near one million. In 1970, Essence, the first successful magazine aimed at black middle-class women, was started by Edward Lewis. It also enjoyed a circulation of one million in 2000.

Neither the newspaper nor the magazine industry like to claim tabloids, partly because of their bad reputation for fallacious stories. However, the Audit Bureau of Circulations, which checks newspaper and magazine circulations weekly, counts tabloids as magazines. William Randolph Hearst founded the first U.S. tabloid, the National Enquirer, in 1926. The tabloid struggled until it was purchased in 1952 by Generoso Pope, who had worked for his father's New York-based Italian language paper, Il Progresso. Pope noticed how auto accidents drew crowds and decided that "if it was blood that interested people," he'd give it to them in the National Enquirer. By the mid-1960s, Pope had increased the Enquirer's circulation to one million. Rupert Murdoch's News Corp came out with a competing tabloid, the Star, in 1974. It and a third tabloid, the Globe, cut into the Enquirer's circulation. The popularity of tabloids peaked in the 1980s, though tabloids continue to specialize in reaching audiences not served by mainstream media.

The flexibility of the Internet makes it an attractive area for companies and individuals looking to create a successful magazine. Most print magazines have Web sites that offer a few stories online while encouraging readers to subscribe or buy the magazine at a newsstand. Some Webzines have large corporate backers, such as Microsoft's Slate, but others arise out of an interest in creating a cultural or political forum, such as Salon, which was started in 1995 by five former reporters from the San Francisco Examiner. Positive word-of-mouth made Salon the leading Webzine, with more than 1.4 million readers by 2000, even as the magazine was forced to cut editorial staff to reduce expenses and become profitable.

Many media companies view magazines as an area of growth. For example, in 1998, ESPN cable sports network launched ESPN the Magazine. In recent years, publishers have also explored synergy between daytime television and magazines. A good example of this is how Oprah Winfrey's talk show and other media outlets provide content support and new subscribers for O: The Oprah Magazine.

1. Regional editions of national magazines are _____.

Because of the great diversity in magazine content, it is hard to offer a common profile of a successful magazine. Typically, most large commercial magazines operate several departments: production and technology, editorial content, advertising and sales, and circulation and distribution.

The production and technology department maintains the computer and printing hardware necessary to produce the magazine, and this department also tries to merge old and new ideas to save money and attract audiences. Because of the high cost of printing, some magazine publishers have begun to digitally transport copy via satellite to regional printing sites for the insertion of local ads and for faster distribution. Also, magazines have come up with technological innovations to attract advertisers and audiences, such as digitized full-color versions on the Web or special inserts called selective edits, which provide extra coverage of topics for specific customers.

The editorial department produces all content for the magazine, excluding advertisements. Most magazines have a chain of command that begins with the publishers and extends to the editor in chief, managing editor, and a variety of subeditors. Also, magazines may hire freelance writers who are not a part of the staff but might be assigned to cover particular stories or a region of the country.

The advertising and sales department secures clients, arranges promotions, and places ads. Also, this department conducts market research to study trends and changes in magazine-reading habits. About half of the annual revenue of a magazine comes from selling ads. The remaining money comes from single-copy and subscription sales. For the past twenty-five years, the typical magazines contain about fifty percent ad copy and fifty percent editorial material, though fashion and general-interest magazines carry a higher percentage of ads than do political or literary magazines. Some magazines, such as Mad, Ms., and Consumer Reports do not carry ads at all and rely on subscriptions and newsstand sales for revenue. The relationship between some advertisers and magazines has led to a dramatic decline in investigative reporting, as editors are put under pressure not to offend advertisers with editorial content.

The circulation and distribution department monitors single-copy and subscription sales. In recent years, subscriptions, which dominated the industry's infancy, have made a strong comeback. For example, in 1950, subscriptions accounted for 57 percent of magazine sales, but by 2003 that number had risen to 86 percent. Magazines circulate in two basic ways: paid or controlled. Paid circulation means a consumer buys a subscription to the magazine or an individual copy at the newsstand. Controlled circulation means that the magazine is provided to a captive group of readers, such as airline passengers or association members at no charge. More than eighty percent of all American households either subscribe to a magazine or purchase one on a regular basis. While magazine editors worried about the economic health of the industry during the 1990s (in 1990 for the first time since the Great Depression there was a decline in consumer magazine titles), by the end of the decade the Magazine Publishers of America claimed the industry was once again healthy and was riding a revenue boom that was expected to last into the early 2000s.
Major magazine chains

The commercial magazine industry closely resembles the cable television industry in terms of ownership. Just as roughly eleven thousand cable systems operate in the U.S., about twelve thousand commercial magazines exist-many independently owned. Also, similar to the cable industry, large companies or chains dominate the business, raising questions about the impact of a handful of powerful owners on the ideas that circulate in the commercial marketplace. Time Warner, the world's largest media conglomerate, owns Time, Inc., a major magazine subsidiary that publishes thirty-five titles. Other important players in the magazine industry include Mortimer Zuckerman (Atlantic Monthly and U.S. News and World Report), the Meredith Publishing Company (Ladies' Home Journal and Better Homes and Gardens), the Hearst Corporation (Cosmopolitan and Esquire), and the Condé Nast Group of Advance Publications (Vanity Fair and GQ). International companies are also industry players, including Paris-based Hachette Filipacchi, which owns more than two hundred magazines worldwide and about twenty U.S. magazines like Mirabella and Premiere. Only about two hundred of the eighteen thousand titles from the U.S. circulate in the world market; however, these magazines, much like exported American TV shows and movies, play a key role in determining the look of global culture.

Most alternative publications work to satisfy small but loyal groups of readers. There are more than two thousand alternative magazines in the U.S., and though many fail, each month brings new entries to this group. Alternative magazines have historically defined themselves in terms of politics (e.g., the Progressive or the National Review); however, they have broadened in recent years to include any publication considered "outside the mainstream," from politics to punkzines (the magazine answer to punk rock). Sometimes, alternative magazines have become marginally mainstream, like in the Reagan era when the circulation of the conservative National Review jumped to more than 100,000.

Конецформы

209. 
     Review the sections "The early history of magazines", "The development of modern American magazines", "The domination of specialization", "The organization and economics of magazines" and "Magazines in a democratic society" in your textbook. When you are ready, write a brief paragraph-length response to each of the questions that follow.
     
210. 
     
     

2. Describe muckraking in American magazines.

3. Explain some of the ways in which magazines can be split into categories and types.

4. Describe the organization of a large commercial magazine.

1. In what ways did People magazine imitate and improve upon failed general-interest magazines such as Life and Look?

2. TV Guide's rise paralleled the decline of weekly general-interest magazines. In what ways did TV Guide significantly differ from these types of magazines?
Focus Questions (2)

1. How does the ranking of magazines differ between 1972 and 2004?

1. What does the order of the Top 10 magazines ranked by circulation tell you about trends in magazine readership in 2004?

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