Gulf War Air Power Survey
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- Report Acknowledgements
- Introduction
- 1 Air Base Engineering and Services
- Engineering and Services
- Prime BEEF establish, maintain, and restore base infrastructure and provide critical operational support.
| Part II
Support Task Force Chief Mr. Richard A. Gunkel Authors Mr. Ted Beck Lt. Col. Donald G. Belle Capt. Ariane L. Desaussure Mr. Edgar L. Franklin Mr. Fonce E. Gipson Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer Lt. Col. Harry L. Heintzelman, IV Maj. Thomas R. MacPhail Dr. James S. Nanney Dr. Albert C. Pierce Lt. Col. Lorraine K. Potter Lt. Col. Michael L. Warden Maj. Michael H. Whitaker
Introduction xi 1 Air Base Engineering and Services 1 2 Protecting the Air Bases 31 3 Contracting Support 55 4 Legal Support to Air Operations 65 5 Weather Operations 83 6 Mobilization and Personnel Support 103 7 Media and Public Affairs 135 8 Supporting The People 179 9 Medical Support 201 10 Conclusion 233 Index 289
A Deployment of Engineering and Services Forces 249
Storm Ground Rules 275 H Public Affairs Chain of Command 277 I Guidelines for News Media 279 J Historical Comparison of War Correspondence 281 Tables 1 Harvest Falcon Major Components Used in the Gulf War 7 2 USAFE Billeting Support 28 3 Threat Level Matrix 35 4 Integrated Security Forces of U.S. Air Bases 49 5 Contracts Transferred to Saudi Arabia 61 6 Composition and Strength of USAF Ready Reserve 105 7 Presidential Selected Reserve Call-up, 22 August 1990 108 8 Selected Reserve Call-up, 14 November 1990 110 9 Partial Mobilization, 18 January 1991 111 10 Partial Mobilization Authorities Compared to Number Activated 118 11 DOD Casualty Figures 129 12 Deployability Problems Associated With Inadequate Dependent Care Plans 130 13 Opinion Poll 142 14 Opinion Poll 144 15 Opinion Poll 149 16 Opinion Poll 151 17 Average Weekly Transactions Processed 192 18 Medical Manpower Summary 206 19 Aeromedical Evacuation Data 224 20 Meteorological Tactical Equipment 273 Figures 1 AOR Air Bases 11 2 USAF Ground Defense Forces 32 3 Air Base Ground Defense 44 4 Weather Support Forces 84 5 Climatology for 10,000 Ft. or Lower Ceilings 85 6 Joint Air Component Planning Cycle 95 7 Total Force Mobilization Resources 104 8 Past Use of the Air Reserve Component 106 9 Selected Reserve and Active Strength Comparison 112
During Desert Shield 112 11 Guard and Reserve Support Unit Sorts Jul 1990 119 12 USAF Women Deployed and Total Force 126 13 Active Air Force Nondeployables By Type 131 14 Military Post Office Locations 196 15 September 1990-May 1991 SWA Mail Volume 198 16 Disease and Non-Battle Injury Rates 207 17 Air-Transportable Hospital Locations 208 18 Hospital Support of the Gulf War 210 19 Air Force Casualty Movement 216 20 Theater Casualty Flow Plan 217 21 CENTAF Aeromedical Evacuation Decision Time 218 Report Acknowledgements When the survey of support areas was assigned to the Logistics, Support, and Space Task Force under Mr. Richard A. Gunkel, it was decided that the functional areas would heavily contribute written materials in developing the Support Report. The responsibility for coordinating and managing these efforts, providing guidance, assessing inputs, editing, and rewriting materials fell upon Mr. Fonce E. Gipson. In addition, Mr. Gipson authored the chapters on materiel and contracting; morale, welfare, and recreation; and coauthored with Mr. Ted Beck the conclusions. Mr. Beck also produced the chapter on personnel. The other chapters were written by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer (air base engineering), Lt. Col. Donald G. Belle (air base defense), Capt. Ariane L. Desaussure with Lt. Col. Harry L. Heintzelman, IV (law of aerial warfare), Maj. Thomas R. MacPhail (weather operations), Dr. Albert C. Pierce with Lt. Col. Michael L. Warden (media and public affairs), Lt. Col. Lorraine K. Potter (chaplaincy), Mr. Edgar L. Franklin (finance), Maj. Michael H. Whitaker (postal operations), and Dr. James S. Nanney (medical affairs). For writing the stories of these functional areas, these authors are to be highly commended. In the technical production of this work, we are indebted to Ms. Cecelia French and Mr. Alan P. Heffernan (for their adroit electronic manipulation), Mr. Chris Pankow (for his thorough editing), and Ms. Barbara L. Gardien (for skillful layout and design). Introduction The intent of this report is to capture and tell the stories of functional support areas. It is a truism that military commanders must carefully choose the exact mix of combat and support forces. Out of balance, this mix may spell disaster for combat operations and, in some cases, determine the difference between victory and defeat. In view of rapidly changing geopolitical and world economic trends, the need to learn more about combat support operations for limited and regional contingencies is of obvious importance. This report, we hope, will contribute to that end, with focus on those support areas that project air power. This support can best be characterized as either direct support: supporting the air base and air operations; or indirect: supporting the people conducting air operations. Within this framework, support forces must be structured to provide support for both normal, noncombat operations and intense combat operations (twenty-fours, seven days a week). This characterization lends itself to a three-part description. The first concentrates on supporting the air base, with chapters on air base engineering and services, protecting the air base with its materials, and contracting support. The second part, supporting air operations, discusses the law of aerial warfare, weather operations, mobilization, and personnel support. The third area, supporting the people, consists of media and public affairs, providing for troop morale, and medical support. The final chapter identifies specific problems for further investigation and offers conclusions on support operations. To elaborate on the first part, supporting the air base, the author examines air base engineering and services functions that pertain to building the air base infrastructure needed to support the overall mission of assigned aircraft. This chapter traces background material on air base construction and the force structure needed to accomplish that mission. It reviews Saudi modernization and industrialization program efforts concerning air base engineering, facilities, and support capabilities prior to the arrival of U.S. forces. The author addresses deployment of engineering forces to about twenty air bases throughout the region and the initial employment of those forces during Operation Desert Shield, interweaving Services-related functions, since they reported through engineering channels. The transition to war in Operation Desert Storm and the engineering postwar denial of Iraqi access to southern Iraq airfields conclude the deliberation on air base engineering and services. Discussions on protecting the air base include prewar planning and security police manpower determination standards. Particularly emphasized are air force structure requirements for protecting the air base and its assets. Here the author analyzes differences between the Army and the Air Force with regard to air base ground defense, their differing concepts of rear area security, and a deliberation of the different doctrinal perspectives. This part of the report then focuses on employing security forces as a joint effort between Army, Air Force, and Coalition forces at various sites in the theater. The author discusses relations with host nation security forces as well as the gradual acknowledgment of mutual capabilities to protect both U.S. and Coalition assets and personnel and analyzes command and control issues with emphasis on the ground defenses in terms of Air Force and Army relationship. The Air Force contends that rear area security is more important than does the Army, since the majority of Army combat forces operate on the front lines. The Air Force contends, however, that Army close air support requirements provided by the Air Force justify protection of high-dollar value assets by Army combat units. The final discussion of this part centers on maturing the security structure at beddown locations, materiel and contracting support related to the air base, including the services that support the air base. The second major area of this report contains chapters that address direct or indirect functions that support air operations. A chapter on law of aerial warfare discusses mobility, deployment, legal issues surrounding the activation of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet, communications between forward and rear echelons, and international law pertaining to the Status of Forces Agreements between the United States, host nations, and civilian contractors. Air refueling of Coalition aircraft also involved the Status of Forces Agreements between the United States and host nations. Authors further deliberate rules of engagement, with specific emphasis on legal involvement in the targeting process, use of civilians, prisoner of war issues, and war claims. Civil law and legal assistance absorbed attention with regard to Service members and their families; the Soldiers and Sailors Relief Act particularly emphasizes reemployment rights of those returning from the Gulf War. Contracting in the theater of operations, contract law dealing with leasing, and blanket purchasing agreements commanded attention because of their volume. A discussion of judge advocate redeployment includes issues surrounding property leased by the U.S. Government and property turned over to host nations. The author identified the impact of the weather support structure on air operations in Southwest Asia, dealing with climatology as it was predicted and comparing it to actual conditions. The chapter deals with the impact of weather on tactics and the ability to launch missions in the theater of operations. It shows how joint weather support is provided and examines problematic issues of sharing weather information between Services; the value of weather support; examples where missions were planned on the basis of accurate weather forecasting; and in conclusion, what type of equipment is needed to support air operations. Concluding the second major part of the report is a chapter on mobilization and personnel support. This chapter analyzes the U.S. Armed Forces structure and the call-up of Reserve and Air National Guardsmen. It addresses practices facing mobilization of reserve forces, training exercises, problems resolved over the last ten years, and deals with Reserve and Air National Guard volunteerism. The chapter describes how in the build-up phase the United States created an offensive capability to extract Iraq from Kuwait in conjunction with the presidential use of a partial mobilization authorization at the beginning of hostilities. It covers personnel accountability of Active, Reserve, National Guard and demobilization issues, procedures and capabilities of Personnel Support Continuing Operations (PERSCO), casualty services, and Operation Yellow Ribbon along with family support services. The chapter also addresses civilian personnel issues along with the use of contracting personnel in the Gulf War. The last functional area, supporting people, begins with coverage of the media and the air war. It focuses on several central issues that may have multiroles relating to wartime media coverage. It deals with information affecting decisionmakers, politicians, the public, and the war fighters in the field; it analyzes influence on the will of a nation to fight. Three primary themes direct the attention of the reader: media coverage and public opinion as measured by the government in weighing public opinion and how the public weighs the progress of the war; media coverage and political-military decisionmaking based on media coverage with its impact on future decisions; and media coverage of combat operations with inherent problems of allowing the media to cover actual combat operations. Such may stem from a logistical perspective, from the risk of danger to media personnel, or they may involve operational security. In providing for troop morale, a number of areas came under scrutiny: those of chaplaincy, morale, welfare and recreation, finance, and postal services. Planning and deployment of chaplains, their role on the CENTAF commander's staff, and restriction placed on them during the Gulf War posed a number of problems and offered challenges associated with operating in an Islamic country. Practicing of one's faith in the Gulf region, such as observing Jewish Holy days and the increased interest displayed by armed forces members in studying the scriptures provided chaplains with valuable insight. Counseling was a major concern, both to Service members and their families back home. Discussion also focusses on problems associated with deployment and redeployment. The limited facilities available to provide for recreation and boost morale and welfare in a desert environment and the disparity of operating conditions throughout the area of operations afforded some investigation. Service members did benefit from rest and recuperation activities, celebrity tours, and from donated equipment and supplies provided by the general public. On the home front, discussion centers on support activities provided to family members of deployed personnel and Congressional intervention due to a lack of support associated with deployment. A central responsibility of the deployed finance and comptroller personnel was to accommodate the financial needs of Service people and to satisfy contracting requirements. A discussion addresses the skills and knowledge levels of financial personnel and how associated training prepared them for their mission in a combat environment. It also reviews the problems associated with a lack of a central command and control structure and the quality of instructions being provided to field finance personnel by some nineteen different agencies. A brief survey of postal operations provides background material on mail operations during World War II and the role of the Air Force as single service manager in Southwest Asia. Further discussion centers on deployment planning, existing postal infrastructure within the theater, mail-handling equipment and supplies, as well as interface requirements and restrictions imposed by host nation customs. Discussion explores Congressional intervention and establishment of free mail, as well as "Any Service Member" mail issues, the roles of the United States Postal Service, Military Postal Service Agency, Military Airlift Command, Federal Aviation Agency, and commercial mail-handling services. Medical support analysis begins with a description of mobile medical facilities during the Gulf War, with central themes on deployment and setup of the first medical facility on 14 August 1990. The analysis highlights medical and dental problems of Reservists and the lack of sufficient medical equipment and supplies during the early stages of the deployment. The author addresses the activation of contingency hospitals in Europe along with inadequate facilities and slow movement of medical equipment and supplies to set up operations. Some did not become operational until as late as 28 February 1991. An outline of aeromedical evacuation procedures and problems emphasizes Joint Chiefs of Staff casualty estimate planning. Other medical areas cover preventive medicine and aircrew medical support issues, prediction rates for in and out patient versus actual experience (which were much lower than expected), aircrew problems such as fatigue and grounding of aircrews, biological and chemical warfare defense, as well as precautions taken against casualties and their associated problems. Many of the writers involved in compiling this survey participated in the support force that deployed to the Middle East. In reflecting on the Gulf War, the reader should keep in mind the purposes of the deployment. The first one, in August 1990, supported defensive operations to deter further aggression by Iraq; the deployment in November 1990, supported offensive operations intended to extract Iraq from Kuwait. Though this survey does not exhaust every conceivable source, it does include materials provided by functional areas, which consist of: • Written accounts from all levels, perspectives, and functional areas • Unit histories and interviews with key personnel • DOD, JCS, and Service reports and studies • SITREPS, message traffic, briefings, and official reports • Air Force Remedial Action Program lessons learned • Joint Uniform Lessons Learned System (JULLS) Hopefully, the conclusions reached as a result of this survey along with a discussion of issues and specific recommendations will spur further investigation within the functional areas discussed. It is realized, however, that firm conclusions and implications for future combat support operations will take time to evolve. 1 Air Base Engineering and Services Air Bases and Aerospace Operational Art Background A major contributing factor to the successful prosecution of the air campaign during Operation Desert Storm was the availability and operability of a network of bases needed to support air power. To identify air power, Gen. Curtis E. LeMay said: “When I speak of air strength, I am not speaking only of airplanes. I am speaking of airfields, depots, stockpiles, control and communications centers, highly trained and skilled manpowerand airplanes. These constitute air power.”756 Air bases have undergone a vast transformation since the early days of World War I, when they consisted of no more than grass or dirt runways, a few structures, and often livestock. The limited range of early aircraft dictated that most airfields be located as near the front lines as practical. Although simple in design, they were quite expansive. The Amanty field in France, for example, was large enough to accommodate assembly and take-off formation of eighteen to twenty aircraft.757 Recognizing the paramount importance of air bases and their need for dedicated engineering support, with the approach of WW II, Gen. Henry H. Arnold organized battalions of Aviation Engineers to support basing requirements of the growing Army Air Corps. By the end of the war, these units served in all theaters and had built or upgraded 568 airfields overseas.758 Army Air Forces planners generally divided airfields into 2 types: dry-weather and all-weather. Dry-weather fields had dirt or sand runways and parking areas unusable in wet weather. All-weather fields were surfaced with concrete, asphalt, crushed stone, coral, or matting. The IX Aviation Engineer Command was created to rehabilitate and construct airfields on the European continent. By V-E Day, 8 May 1945, they had constructed or reconditioned 241 airfields.759 In the Pacific, airfields became a primary objective of island-hopping toward Japan, and the capture of an island's airfield or the construction of a new one was key in defending the region and extending the range for bombers.760 The Korean War renewed the appreciation for adequate air bases. The introduction of several new aircraft, including jets, required longer and wider runways, larger taxiways and parking aprons, and more stringent design criteria. Engineers constructed 9,000-foot all-weather runways at Osan, Taegu, Kunsan, and Suwon, and during the Korean War, they built or upgraded 55 airfields.761 Inadequate basing limited the build-up of American forces in Southeast Asia in the mid-1960s. To overcome the limitations, the Air Force built four major air bases in South Vietnam (Cam Ranh Bay, Phu Cat, Phan Rang, and Tuy Hoa). Often parked dangerously close together, aircraft offered a lucrative target for terrorists and presented a safety hazard. On one occasion, the accidental explosion of a bomb on a parked B-57 at Bien Hoa triggered a series of blasts that killed or injured 100 people and destroyed more than 50 aircraft and vehicles. In the face of such experience, engineers initiated a major program to construct revetments and aircraft shelters to protect the valuable assets.762 Engineering and Services Air Force Engineers are organized into 2 basic types of units with complementary missions: Base Civil Engineering units and Civil Engineering RED HORSE units. Base Civil Engineering units, including Prime BEEF (Base Engineer Emergency Forces), participate with combat forces, providing direct support to the operational mission at each air base. The workforce in the United States is comprised of roughly 50 percent military and 50 percent civilians, who establish, maintain, and restore the base infrastructure and provide critical operational support, such as fire suppression and crash rescue. Prime BEEF is part of a Base Civil Engineering unit earmarked to deploy as 50-, 100-, 150-, and 200-person teams in support of contingencies. Civil Engineering RED HORSE units are wartime-structured engineers that provide a heavy engineering capability but not base-level operations and maintenance. Mobile, rapidly deployable, and largely self-sufficient for limited periods of time, they perform wartime tasks, such as major force beddown, heavy damage repair, barebase development, and heavy engineering operations. The Army, Navy, and Marine engineer units train essentially full time for their combat roles. These units have no peacetime base maintenance tasks although they may accept specific projects for team skill training. Two-thirds of the Army Engineer capability consists of reserves, and they focus on joint operations, Coalition warfare, with a theater of operations orientation. They train to support battlefield functionsmobility, countermobility, survivability, general support engineering, topography engineering, and sustainment of all forces in the theater. The Navy Seabees focus on the sea-land bridge engineering problem and advanced base support; their force consists of about seventy percent reserves, and their battalions rotate from home stations to deployed locations for about six months at a time. Their training is conducted in close concert with the Marines for amphibious operations, and usually they are included in the amphibious assault follow-on force. The Marine engineers focus primarily on 41
Prime BEEF establish, maintain, and restore base infrastructure and provide critical operational support. 1
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