Tights in Flight: a quantitative Deconstruction of Super-Masculinity in American Comic Books
Research Hypotheses and Questions
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Research Hypotheses and QuestionsThis research explores the construction of masculinity in superhero comic books through analysis of race, sexuality, muscularity, and aggression. Demographical characteristics are examined against normative masculine traits identified in existing literature (i.e., whiteness, heterosexuality, increased musculature, and aggressive behavior). Variation between male and female characters are examined, and gender interactions are analyzed to determine whether current representations support existing literature identifying female characters as unequal (Best, 2005; Emad, 2006; Lavin, 1998; Pecora, 1992). Specifically, the following research hypotheses are tested:
The following research question will also be explored: what is the relationship between masculinity and aggression? Research MethodologyThis research employs mixed methods to examine the construction of masculinity in superhero comics, relying primarily on quantitative analysis with limited qualitative observations. An eighty-six-item instrument was constructed and used to analyze 138 characters from fourteen comic books (Appendix A). Coding was done at a small comic book store in western North Carolina with the verbal consent of the owner. Variables were conceptualized in accordance with existing literature measuring character behavior and demographical information, focusing on expressions of sexual interest, aggression, and humiliation. Eight variables from Morrison and Halton’s analysis of muscularity and masculinity in action films were conceptualized along with seven additional variables (Morrison and Halton, 2009). Morrison and Halton’s use of the BIG-O scale developed by Hildebrandt et al. was incorporated to measure muscularity among male characters (Morrison and Halton, 2009; Hildebrandt et al., 2004). Instrument DesignAll variables were conceptualized for the purpose of the study. Each variable was operationalized to measure dimensions relevant to the research questions. Instrument items are closed-ended, exclusive, and exhaustive. A number of categories include the dimension other to identify dimensions for future drafts. An additional comments section is provided after each table to note potential revisions to the instrument and information not recorded elsewhere. Seven variables measure demographical characteristics. The variable sex is conceptualized as the biological presentation of a character. The dimensions measured are male, female, and other. Race is conceptualized as the ethnic, racial, or national identity of a character. Dimensions of race are stated (a character’s ethnic, racial, or national identity is explicitly identified) and apparent (the ethnic, racial, or national identity of a character is implied or unstated), with a line to record emergent categories. Stated racial categories recorded were Egyptian, Alien, and Unstated. The vast majority of characters were unstated, resulting in the use of apparent racial categories for statistical analysis. Apparent racial categories include white, black, Asian, mutant, alien, demon, and unknown. The category unknown designates apparel precluding racial identification. Age is conceptualized as the number of years a character has lived. Similar to race, the dimensions of age are stated (a character’s age is explicitly identified and a number is recorded) and apparent (if a character’s age is not stated an approximate range is indicated), with a space to record each. Age ranges are conceptualized as infant (swaddling to toddler, 0-4), child (prepubescent but cognizant, 5-10), adolescent (transitioning through puberty, 11-17), young adult (sexually mature with youthful face, 18-25), adult (sexually mature without youthful face, 26-39), middle age (graying or thinning hair, facial creasing, 40-59), and old age (gray/white hair and/or thinning or bald, extensive facial creasing, 60 and older). The category incomprehensible was added during coding to measure characters without identifiable age signifiers. The BIG-O scale, created by Hildebrandt et al. to identify varying degrees of musculature among men, allows respondents to select a body image that represents their own body and scores it against an image representing the subject’s desired body. The body fat of each figure in the BIG-O scale increases in increments of 6.5 percent moving left to right, while muscle mass of each figure increases moving top to bottom. The figures range in muscularity from a Fat Free Muscle Index score of 15.5 to 29.0, 20 being the average for American males and 25 being the genetic maximum—only exceeded with ergogenic aids, such as steroids. BIG-O Rating measures the numerical score for a character through reference to the BIG-O scale (Hildebrandt et al., 2004:171). Numerical scores identified are collapsed into Likert-type measurements according to body type clusters within the BIG-O: thin (1, 2, 3, 6, and 7), moderate (13 and 17), overweight (22, 24, and 29), extreme musculature (4, 9, and 10), and steroid use (5). Sexual Orientation is conceptualized according to a character’s sex and the sex of the characters they express sexual interest in. The dimensions include heterosexual (interest in opposite sex), homosexual (interest in same sex), bisexual (interest in same sex and opposite sex), and other. Categories eliminated from data analysis due to lack of representation include homosexual (n=0) and bisexual (n=0). Prominence is conceptualized as the importance of the character within the comic book. Dimensions of prominence are major and minor. Major characters are present in at least fifty percent of the pages of a comic book. Minor characters are present in less than fifty percent but more than ten percent of pages (rounded up to the nearest whole number). Characters present in less than ten percent of pages are not coded. Superpower is conceptualized as abilities possessed by a character exceeding the range of human capability. Dimensions of superpower are physical (increased physical ability, such as super-strength, healing, laser vision, etc.), mental (increased mental ability, such as telepathy, super-genius, etc.), elemental (ability to manipulate elements, such as metal, air, fire, water, etc.), and other (objects imbuing the user with powers, emotional powers, etc.). For characters without superpowers none is recorded in the other category. Categories were collapsed into physical, physical and nonphysical, nonphysical, unknown, and none during analysis to better represent research hypotheses. Unknown indicates the presence of a costume or other signifier without demonstration of exceptional abilities. Six variables measure character behavior. Conversion from frequencies to Likert-type measurements is scaled to best represent variation in data (i.e., wider class width indicates higher total occurrences and greater range). Attainment of a favorable outcome is conceptualized as the achievement of a goal desired by the character. The variable is scored using a table that tallies six dimensions, defeats an opponent: death or incapacitation of an adversary; escapes an opponent: successfully flees from an adversary; obtains information: acquires desired knowledge, such as a clue in a robbery or the identity of an unknown adversary; romantic encounter: receives desired physical intimacy from a character, such as a mutual embrace, kiss, sexual intercourse, etc.; rescues others: successfully prevents harm from coming to another character; and other. Individual outcomes are tallied, summed, and converted to a Likert-type measurement; 0, none; 1, low; 2, moderate; 3, high; and four or more, extreme. An overall measurement of favorable outcomes is calculated by summing dimensions; 0, none; 1 to 2, low; 3 to 4, moderate; 5 to 6, high; and seven or more, extreme. Romantic partnership is conceptualized as explicit reference to a past or ongoing intimate relationship between two or more characters. It is scored using a table that tallies three dimensions: with male indicates an intimate relationship with a male character, with female indicates an intimate relationship with a female character, and with other indicates an intimate relationship with a non-female and non-male character. With other was eliminated during analysis due to lack of representation (n=0). Occurrences are tallied, summed, and converted to a Likert-type measurement; 0, low; 1, moderate; and 2 or more, high. Sexual interest is conceptualized as the expression of sexual attraction toward a character. Sexual interest is scored using two tables with six dimensions that intersect in a grid. Verbal, physical, and mental measure the medium in which the sexual interest manifests. Verbal indicates expression of interest that takes place within the dialogue between characters. Physical indicates expression of interest that takes place in the visual representation of the characters. Mental indicates expression of interest that occurs in the narrative text of a character or in the character’s mind. In the first table the medium through which the interest is expressed is scored according to the sex of the character in which interest is expressed. Toward male indicates that the interest was toward a male character, toward female indicates a female character, and toward other indicates interest in a non-female and non-male character. The second table tallies the reception of sexual interest. Verbal, physical, and mental expressions of sexual interest are scored as either from male, from female, or from other. Dimensions associated with interest toward and from other have not been included for statistical analysis due to lack of representation (n=0). Occurrences are tallied, summed, and converted to a Likert-type measurement; 0, low; 1, moderate; and 2 or more, high. Due to low representation, overall scores for interest are converted with the same scale; 0, low; 1, moderate; and 2 or more, high. Aggression is conceptualized as any attempt to instigate or engage in conflict with another character. Aggression is scored using a table that codes three categories of behavior, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and sexual aggression, as well as the degree of physical aggression and the justification for each act of aggression (verbal and physical categories, as well as a number of dimensions, are adapted from Morrison and Halton, 2009). Verbal aggression is conceptualized as any aggressive act that occurs in the dialogue between characters. It is coded as intimidation: attempting to frighten a character; coercion: attempting to scare a character into acting against personal interests; insult: calling a character degrading names, belittling their importance, or undermining their authority; threat: statement or implication of non-specific future aggressive act, for example: “You’ll wish you were never born;” specific physical threat: statement or implication of explicit future aggressive act, for example: “I am going to rip out your guts;” death threat: statement of future aggressive act specifying the death of a character, for example: “I’m going to kill you;” or other. Occurrences are tallied, summed, and converted to a Likert-type measurement; 0, none; 1, low; 2, moderate; 3, high; and four or more, extreme. Totals of dimensions are summed and converted to a Likert-type measurement for overall verbal aggression; 0, none; 1 to 2, low; 3 to 4, moderate; 5 to 6, high; and seven or more, extreme. Physical aggression is conceptualized as any aggressive act that takes place in the visual representation of the characters. Physical aggression is divided into four categories, intimidation: brandishing weapons, body parts, or superpowers in an attempt to frighten a character or imply impending violence; body: use of the body to inflict violence on a character; object: use of an item to inflict violence on a character, with a space to record the item used; and superpower: use of an ability not possessed by human beings to inflict violence on a character. Occurrences are tallied, summed, and converted to a Likert-type measurement; 0, none; 1 to 3, low; 4 to 6, moderate; 7 to 9, high; and ten or more, extreme. Totals of dimensions are summed and converted to a Likert-type measurement for overall physical aggression; 0, none; 1 to 7, low; 8 to 14, moderate; 15 to 21, high; and 22 or more, extreme. Physical aggression is also scored with a contingency item, degree. The degree of physical aggression is divided into six categories, obstruction of goal: attempting to interrupt a character; physical restraint: maliciously restraining a character’s freedom of movement; minor injury: violence that produces none to a small amount of blood, has no effect on a character’s mobility, and/or produces little to no fear in the character attacked; major injury: violence that produces more than a small amount of blood, has an impact on a character’s mobility, and/or produces more than a small amount of fear in the character attacked; incapacitation: immobilization of a character without continuous use of violence or restraints; and death: the end of a character’s life through the use of violence. Conversion to Likert-type measurements is accomplished using class widths associated with physical aggression scores, with the exception of death, which, due to rarity, is converted using the class widths associated with verbal aggression. The third type of aggression is sexual aggression, which indicates any form of sexual assault against a character. Sexual aggression is divided into three categories, forced nudity: the undesired removal of a character’s clothing; forced sexual activity: coerced participation in undesired physical intimacy of any kind; and other. Omitted from statistical analysis due to lack of representation are forced nudity (n=0) and forced sexual activity (n=0). Conversion to Likert-type measurements is performed using class widths associated with verbal aggression scores. Every act of aggression, verbal, physical, and sexual, is also scored according to one of six justification categories. Self-defense: aggression in response to a direct threat or threatening situation; defense of others: aggression in response to a perceived threat to another character; inflict harm or fear: aggression to inflict pain or terror on a character; personal gain: aggression solely to achieve a goal (for example; money, revenge, world domination); other; or unjustified: aggression for no apparent purpose. Conversion to Likert-type measurements is accomplished using class widths associated with physical aggression scores.
The Frame Assessment Table (see below) is the result of a deficiency identified in the instrument during the first informal pretest. The instrument underwent three revisions based on pretests. The first informal pretest (conducted with the assistance of an avid comic book reader) resulted in the creation of two variables that measure variation in the visual prominence and mobility of characters according to sex. A second informal pretest (conducted with my research advisor) led me to narrow the focus of my research and eliminate unnecessary variables; and the third, a formal pretest, resulted in the addition of the dimensions intimidation and coercion to the aggression and humiliation tables. The Frame Assessment Table measures the passive/active and peripheral/central status of characters in all frames of one randomly selected page from each comic book in the sample (Appendix B). One page from each comic book in the sample was randomly selected for analysis using the random integer function on a TI-84 graphing calculator. The passive/active and peripheral/central status of each character is measured according to their sex. Statistical analysis is performed using SPSS.
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