Tights in Flight: a quantitative Deconstruction of Super-Masculinity in American Comic Books

Limitations and Delimitations

In an attempt to understand relationships of gendered social attributes represented in superhero comics a matrix of variables and associations were identified and analyzed. The selection of variables, while informed by existing literature, does not include analyses of a wide range of social behaviors which could be examined, due primarily to time constraints and the complexity of the instrument construction involved (for example: emotional expression among characters, risk-taking behaviors, competitive behaviors, etc.).

The decision to examine highest-grossing superhero comics, while providing valuable information about normative masculinity among characters, inevitably reduces overall variation in the sample by excluding titles that may appeal to less prominent social groups and possess a smaller market share. Sampling only the highest-grossing comics within a short time period (Sept. 2010 to Mar. 2011) may also reduce generalizability due to periodic changes in the writers and artists on each series and overall shifts in popularity. Masculinities represented in superhero comics are also unlikely to be generalizable to other comic book genres.

Small sample size, while potentially adequate in a normally distributed population, provides n values that are almost non-existent for female and non-white characters. This also reduces the generalizability of the data. To make definitive statements about the population a larger sample is necessary, but due to time constraints (design, collection, and analysis occurred within a three-month period), the analysis of 138 characters and over 70 items proved highly challenging in itself. Above all, further research—both qualitative and quantitative— is required to accurately map the gendered landscape of comics and the relationships between superhero masculinities.

A degree of discretion is allocated to researchers during coding and variation is expected. However, due to the relative inexperience of the author, a notable increase in coding reliability occurred throughout the process, indicating a higher level of error in early measurements. Additionally, all categories marked apparent on the instrument require higher levels of interpretation.

As identified by Hall (2007), content analysis provides only one aspect of a social process mediated by individual interpretations. Without analysis of comic book readers and ways in which they interpret and negotiate meaning, statistics describe encoded messages without contextualization of the nuanced relationship between cultural artifact and consumer.

Significance of Study

Media significantly impact the formation and reproduction of gendered hierarchies in society. As a result, studies of media representations of masculinity provide insight into the structure of gendered hierarchies and the process through which they are constructed and maintained. Comic books are an area of increasing social significance that has been relatively unexamined by academia. Existing studies are qualitative, employing historical and literary forms of analyses. This research uses a quantitative instrument designed by the author to collect numerical data for statistical analysis. While results are illuminating, small sample size reduces the generalizability of the data. Future research should repeat the study with a larger sample.

Results identify heterosexuality, whiteness, hyper-muscularity, attainment of favorable outcomes, increased prominence, and the possession of superpowers as normative masculine characteristics in superhero comic books; findings consistent with qualitative observations in existing studies. However, in contradiction to existing literature, analyses indicate a negative correlation between male physical aggression and attainment of favorable outcomes. Further analysis of the relationship between gender and aggression shows female characters to be equally aggressive—also in contradiction to existing literature. Additional examination of the relationship between gender and aggression is recommended.

The majority of quantitative data support the argument that female characters are heterosexual signifiers, finding them to be more identifiably heterosexual, less prominent, less likely to have or use superpowers, less represented, and more likely to engage in romantic or sexual behaviors. However, contrary to existing arguments, they are also equally violent and successful, indicating that underrepresentation and increased sexual activity are the primary characteristics distinguishing them from their male counterparts. Future research should perform an equivalent study of representations of femininity in superhero comics, as well as a quantitative longitudinal study of gender representations to identify possible historical shifts indicated by qualitative observations in existing literature.

Humiliation is randomly distributed by race, muscularity, gender, and sexual orientation, indicating the primary form of sanctioning against non-normative masculine traits and female characters is underrepresentation. This has been theoretically identified as harmful to consumers for whom specific characteristics may be unattainable (for example, whiteness, body types dependent on steroid use, maleness, and heterosexuality). However, an audience study should be done to analyze the way superhero comic books are decoded by readers and determine the interaction between representations of masculinity and the formation and maintenance of reader identities.

Last, the instrument designed for this study provides an example and resource for future researchers interested in measuring quantitative data in comic books of any genre.

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