Tights in Flight: a quantitative Deconstruction of Super-Masculinity in American Comic Books

Normative Masculinity

One of the primary mediums of cultural transmission is the story, in which beliefs, customs, and values are embedded and shared. In stories heroes are symbolic representations of social ideals, expressions of desirable and exemplary traits, though always flawed or conflicted in some way. Modern stories take many forms: radio, television, film, novel, comic book, and so on. The superheroes of modern comic books, however, are arguably the quintessential symbols of masculinity for adolescent and young adult males in America (Brown, 1999; Pecora, 1992). Statistical analysis of traits of male characters indicates a number of significant relationships, providing a quantitative sketch of the exemplary masculinity superheroes symbolically embody.

As indicated by demographical frequencies, normative character traits within the sample are whiteness and heterosexuality, a finding consistent with relevant media analyses and research expectations (Best, 2005; Brown, 1999; Greenberg et al., 2003; Morrison and Halton, 2009; Palmer-Mehta and Hay, 2005; Singer, 2002; Soulliere, 2006). In regard to a hierarchy of masculinities this aligns normative superhero masculinity with these two primary elements of hegemonic masculinity, indicating that not only super human abilities, but racial and sexual privilege are also important elements of the idealized masculinity of superheroes (Carrigan et al., 1985; Chesebro and Fuse, 2001; Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005; Donaldson, 1993).

Further exploration of the relationship between race and sexuality among male characters indicates the majority of identifiable heterosexuals are white (85.3%, n=29), while non-whites make up almost half the characters with unknown sexualities (47.1%, n=33), showing a statistically significant disparity in sexual representation by race (p=.018). This seems to indicate that the sexuality of non-white characters is of lesser importance, reinforcing observations of the social privilege afforded white male characters. Apparently, representations of white sexuality are more noteworthy and acceptable, especially for the emulation of adolescent boys.

Although not statistically significant, the relationship between race and character prominence among men also supports observations of the increased social value of white characters (p=.145). One mutant, one alien, and one unidentifiable character are major. All other major characters are white (n=22). Although black and mutant characters are equally represented (n=6), no black or other minority male characters are major. Even when minority masculinities are present they are relegated to supporting roles in the whitewashed drama of super-heroism.

Racial minorities are also less likely to talk back. Black, Asian, and mutant characters do not engage in verbal aggression. White characters, however, dominate every level (none, low, moderate, high, and extreme), indicating a statistically significant relationship between race and verbal aggression (p=.000). However, no relationship between race and physical aggression exists (p=.307), indicating all men are equally ready to put up their fists, claws, and tentacles. This indicates minorities may be silent muscle, token representations that join the physical fray but are otherwise on the sidelines.

While data show a masculine environment dominated by white characters interacting with one another, a number of variables are randomly distributed among races, demonstrating relative equality in specific areas. Contradictory to research hypotheses, male characters of every race are equally likely to succeed (p=.99), receive sexual interest (p=.982), and have romantic partners (p=.961). This indicates that although non-whites are underrepresented and their sexual preferences are marginalized, their secondary status does not preclude them from equal opportunities for romance and success. Minorities are also not singled out for physical or verbal abuse, (physical humiliation, p=.343; verbal humiliation, p=.976), indicating that the primary sanction against non-whites is underrepresentation. However, underrepresentation alone presents a skewed version of idealistic masculinity unattainable to minority male readers.

Analysis of Muscularity Among Male Characters

The musculature of the male body symbolizes strength, power, desirability, and success (Brown, 1999; Morrison et al., 2003). Musculature is, in essence, the physical manifestation of an individual’s masculinity. As such, masculinity among superheroes is expected to correspond with excessive and idealized musculature, indicating male characters are superior not only to normal men, but even to men who are muscular by modern social conventions.

Analysis of body types among male characters indicates a bimodal distribution clustered around hyper-muscular (extreme musculature, 26.9%, n=28; steroid use, 21.2%, n=22) and thin (34.6 %, n=36). Hyper-muscularity is most common (48.1%, n=50), supporting research hypotheses concerning normative musculature among male superheroes. High representation of thin male characters supports Brown’s analysis of modern masculinity:

The male identity in the twentieth century is perceived in extremes: man or mouse, He-man or 98-pound weakling. At one end is the hyper-masculine ideal with muscles, sex appeal, and social competence; at the other is the skinny, socially inept failure. But these two male extremes are not so far removed as they might seem. Warrior and wimp exist side by side, each defining the other in mutual opposition. (1999:25)

Hyper-muscularity must be offset by less muscular representations of masculinity in order to provide context and articulate dominance among men. If only hyper-muscularity is represented it becomes unexceptional and no longer serves as a status indicator of power and success.

Examination of the relationships between body type and other normative traits among male characters found a positive association between identifiable heterosexuals and hyper-muscularity (73.6% of all heterosexual male characters are hyper-muscular, n=25, p=.006). This also supports existing literature associating muscularity and sexuality (Brown, 1999; Morrison et al., 2003). The sexual orientation of hyper-muscular men is presented as more apparent and more important (hyper-muscular men represent only 35.7% of characters with unknown sexual identities, n=25).

Examination of the relationship between race and musculature indicates the majority of body-type variation occurs among white characters at a level approaching statistical significance (p=.057). However, this is expected due to overrepresentation of white characters within the sample.

An analysis of the relationship between male body type and physical aggression supports existing literature identifying muscularity as a signifier of physical power and dominance (Brown, 1999; Morrison et al., 2003). Data indicate physical aggression is least common among male characters with unidentifiable and moderate body types, followed by overweight, with significantly higher frequencies among thin, and highest representation among hyper-muscular body types (68%, n=34). Overall, increased physical aggression is associated with hyper-muscularity at a level approaching statistical significance (p=.06).

Surprisingly, data contradict research hypotheses associating muscularity with prominence (p=.674), success (p=.618), romance (p=.703), and desirability (reception of sexual interest, p=.582); indicating muscles primarily signify heterosexuality and physical power among male characters. Also, male characters without hyper-muscular body types are not victims of increased physical (p=.67) or verbal humiliation (p=.43); indicating a lack of verbal or physical sanctions against non-normative male body types. Similar to race and sexual orientation, hyper-muscularity is established as a normative trait through overrepresentation; and, much like other normative superhero traits, hyper-muscularity articulates an idealized masculinity unattainable for most readers and often impossible without the use of steroids (21.2% of male characters, n=21).

Qualitative observation of male superheroes identifies hyper-muscularity as a possible form of compensation for traditionally emasculating apparel (i.e., tights and colorful latex body suits), reinforcing masculine identities called into question by the transcendence of apparel-related gender signifiers. This is supported by Walser’s identification of bodybuilding and homophobia as forms of apologetic behavior among men who adopt stage personas that transcend traditional gender boundaries regarding make-up and feminine clothing (1993:129-130).