A persistent thought, idea, impulse or image that is experienced repeatedly, feels intrusive and causes anxiety

a need to perform repetitive and rigid actions, or both”. (Comer, 2008)

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  OCD is equally common in males and females however women more likely to suffer from compulsions of cleanliness
  
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  A third who report it say it started in childhood, however, in many cases it goes undetected
  
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  Can last a few years to decades
  
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  Sufferers can go through intermittent periods of depression
  
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  Affects around 1-3% of population (Source: National Institute of Mental Health)
  
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  It develops from late adolescence to early adulthood
  
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  People can function well in their daily lives by keeping it a secret, or avoiding the actual act
  
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  Sometimes they will be unable to hold a job – for example if they need to shower ritualistically they will be unable to work
  

Once you have finished that you must do some exam paper questions…

The research suggests that the closer the family relatives are with OCD the more likely another person will also develop it. Carey & Gottesman (1981) – reported a prevalence of up to 10% in 1st degree relatives. Lenane (1990) – 30% of 1st degree relatives in their study also had an OCD.

The problem with twin studies is that they may not have developed the disorder due to genetics but instead because they are treated more similarly in their home/societal environments and so this could be the cause.

The use of PET scans show that people with OCD have two different types of abnormal brain activity - Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin and high levels of activity in the orbital frontal cortex of the brain.

The cognitive explanation of ocd starts fro the explanation that everyone has an undesirable thought sometimes that they would not like to admit to others. For example, most of us have at one time worried about touching something that could have germs on it or forgetting to pull out all the plugs at bed time might start a fire. Cognitive psychologists have argued people who suffer from OCD suffer from the following characteristics:

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  They are more likely to suffer from depression
  

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  They have very high moral standards and standards of conduct
  

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  They believe their thoughts are just like performing the actual behaviour – and so worry their thoughts can be harmful to others.
  

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  They believe they should have total control over their thoughts and behaviours.
  

OCD’s are the result of faulty and irrational ways of thinking at an extreme level. It has been suggested that specific environmental stimuli are paired at some point with an anxiety-provoking thought and then this equals the conditioned response i.e. if I don’t clean, I’ll get AIDS. Thus the person will avoid the possible threat by undertaking the compulsive behaviour.

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  Child accepts will of parents being neat and clean → when their natural preference may be messy.
  
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  If preference is too strong and parents are too strict → child becomes anally fixated
  
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  Occurs at an unconscious level → sufferer believes there really concerned with keeping clean and tidy.
  
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  Psychoanalysts believe OCD is most likely to be found in people who show anal personality characteristics e.g. being excessively neat, orderly and punctual.
  

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  Hard to experimentally test the idea of the unconscious motivation
  

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  Gross (1996) – Reports that studies that examine the potty training of anal personality types (who are not as severe as OCD) find no difference from the potty training of other personality types.
  

Suggests that OCD is an extreme form of ‘learned avoidance’ behaviour:

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  A person who has a high level of anxiety or is extremely fearful happens by chance to wash their hands or organise something into alphabetical order. This then reduces their feelings of anxiety.
  

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  This behaviour is then performed again when the person is anxious and after performing the same action many times when anxious and then finding that the level of anxiety is reduced, the behaviour becomes a learned response. The reduction in anxiety is positively reinforced and so the behaviour is repeated.
  

Compulsive behaviour or mental acts are the result of many pairings of the behaviour with the lowering of anxiety. Having learned this they will engage in the compulsion to prevent the high level of anxiety developing in the first place.

1. 
   Define OCD (2 marks)
   
2. 
   Give at least three diagnostic criteria for OCD using the DSM IV. (3 marks)
   
3. 
   Discuss one biological explanation for OCD. (3 marks)
   
4. 
   Describe one other biological explanation for OCD different to the one mentioned in question 3. (4 marks)
   
5. 
   Give two strengths and 2 weaknesses of the biological explanations of OCD. (4 marks)
   
6. 
   How is positive reinforcement related to the development of OCD? (5 marks)
   
7. 
   Give two criticisms of the behavioural explanations of OCD. (2 marks)
   
8. 
   From a cognitive point of view, psychologists argue that people who suffer from OCD are also more likely to show what characteristics? (3 marks)
   
9. 
   Give one strength of the cognitive explanation of OCD. (2 marks)
   
10. 
    Describe from a psychoanalytical perspective how someone might develop OCD (4 marks)
    

Describe and discuss at least one treatment for phobias. Refer to empirical evidence in your answer. (10 marks)