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Kagame, Alexis, 57–58

Kagame, Paul: corruption reduction under, 12; economic growth and, 12; education system and

achievement under, 12; ethnic unity perception and, 13; innovation in justice processes, 12; local

defense forces under, 70, 210n12; official order to shut down kiosks and makeshift shops affecting

daily life and, 4; peace, security, and rehabilitation claims by, 12; performance contracts meetings

with, 110, 142–43, 209n4; postconflict society successes and, 12; as president, 105; on state power in

context of economic growth, 13; Uganda politics and, 89; vice-president appointment and, 96;

women’s rights and, 12. See also Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)

Karongi (formerly Kibuye), 33, 34, 95

Kayibanda, Grégoire, 49–50, 67–71, 210n11, 210n13

Kellehear, Allan, 44

Kibeho displacement camp, 31–32, 38, 97, 154

Kibuye (now Karongi), 33, 34, 95

Kibuye province, 32, 95, 96, 102

Kigali: administrative organization and, 32, 33, 208n7; civil war and, 90; ethnic violence in, 70, 77, 95;

modernization in, 134, 135

Kimonyo, Jean-Paul, 22–23

ing (mwami), 54, 59, 61–64

Kinyarwanda, xxvi, 14, 34, 37, 40

Kinzer, Stephen, 187

knowers,” knowledge, and knowledge production, 13–14, 23, 28–30, 183

Kuperman, Alan, 18, 95


and acquisition through sweat equity (ubukonde), 60, 210n6

and and land policy: colonial period and, 63–66; destitute Rwandans and, 35, 140; everyday resistance

Rwandans and, 140, 144 ; precolonial period and, 55, 59–60, 61–62; private burials and, 144, 153–55;

protests against hardships and, 179–81; rich Rwandans and, 141, 143, 178; RPF policy and, 143–44,

177, 179–81; socioeconomic structure and, 143–44, 177, 180; speaking against RPF excesses and,

177–78; women’srights and, 125

and ownership system (isambu), 60, 206. See also land and land policy

aw on Non-Profit Associations, 124

aws, in support of national unity practices, 104, 124, 211n5

DF (Local Defense Forces), 5, 149, 207n3

es versus truth, and gacaca court, 180–81

fe history interviews, 3–4, 29–30, 36–37. See also interviews, and procedure and protocol

igue rwandaise pour la promotion et la défense des droits de l’homme (LIPRODHOR or Rwandan

League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights), 124

neage (umuryango), 56, 209n3

IPRODHOR (Ligue rwandaise pour la promotion et la défense des droits de l’homme or Rwandan

League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights), 124

ocal Defense Forces (LDF), 5, 149, 207n3

ocal defense or security forces, 70, 124, 128–29, 145, 210n12. See also public safety committees

ocal government and officials: overview of, 32, 33, 121, 122, 123, 208n7; avoidance of, 111–12, 128–

29, 147–49; cells and, 121, 123, 208n7; culture of violence and, 92–94; decentralization policy and,

12, 32, 33, 51–52, 59; districts and, 121, 208n7; elections and, 121, 123, 141–42, 163, 164, 213n3; as

familiar or unfamiliar with peasants’ everyday lives, 6, 48, 141–43, 142–43, 186–88; gacaca court

and, 112, 148, 162–63, 164 ; hierarchy among, 121–22; imprisonment of, 124; national unity role of,

8, 48, 110–11, 121, 123; NURC responsibilities and, 142; Oath of Oneness and, 98, 211n11; peasants’

everyday lives under, 8, 11, 19, 186–87, 208n7; performance contracts with, 41, 72, 110, 123, 142–43,

187, 206, 209n4, 211n2; provinces and, 121, 123, 208n7; researcher’s relations with, 40–41, 209n3;

RPF membership for, 88, 123, 141–42, 208n4; sectors and, 121, 122, 123, 208n7; sensitization

campaigns run by, 15, 86, 88, 90–91, 93, 123, 167; socioeconomic structure and, 121, 123, 140–42;

structural violence and, 4; suspension of research by, 6; ten-household groupings and, 121, 123, 167–

68, 208n7; villages and, 30, 35, 121, 123, 206, 208n1. See also appointed local government officials;

government administration; national unity practices; Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF); state power as

lived experience

ocal partner organizations, and research, 34, 38–44

ongman, Timothy, 16

Manifesto of the Bahutu, 66–67

manual labor for Tutsi chiefs (uburetwa), 62, 65

marginalization (sociopolitical exclusion), and ethnicity, 48, 54, 57, 76, 78, 129–30, 147

Marie Claire (pseud.), 90, 103, 137, 198

Martin (pseud.), 4, 73, 198

Mbonyumutwa, Dominique, 210n11

MDR (Mouvement démocratique républicain or Republican Democratic Movement), 86–87, 91, 96, 98,

113, 211n9

Médecins sans frontières (MSF or Doctors without Borders), 20

memories, of participants, 45–46

men: division of labor and, 138; violence against, 81

mental tactics versus everyday resistance practices, 145–46, 212n4

methods and research: overview of, 23, 28–29, 183–84, 191–92; ethnic identity sampling and, 36;

ethnographies and, 13–16, 183; field notes and, 26–27; future comparative research and, 26, 194–95;

interpretation and, 44–46; interviews, and procedure and protocol in, 26–27, 36–44, 209n2;

Kinyarwanda and translators in context of, xxvi, 14, 34, 37, 40; life history interviews and, 3–4, 29–

30, 36–37, 45, 183–84, 192; local officials’ relations in context of, 40–41, 209n3; local partner

organizations and, 34, 38–44; northern Rwanda and, 34; reeducation camp experience of researcher

and, 22–23, 26, 191–92; research assistants and, 38; RPF’s relations during, 3, 5–6, 40–41, 209n3;

socioeconomic structure of peasantry and, 35–36; southern Rwanda site and, 30–32, 31, 33, 34;

surveillance by government and, 34–35, 40–42; suspension of research by government and, 3, 5, 6, 41.

See also participants, Rwandan

MIGEPROF (Ministèredugenreetdelapromotion de la femme or Ministry of Gender and Family

Promotion), 125

military police force, 162–63

militias, and 1994 genocide, 31–32, 80. See also specific militias

MINALOC (Ministère de l’administration locale, de l’information et des affaires sociales or Ministry of

Local Government, Information and Social Affairs), 41, 121, 124, 134

MINIJUST (Ministère de la justice or Ministry of Justice), 110, 160, 167

Ministère de l’administration locale, de l’information et des affaires sociales (MINALOC or Ministry of

Local Government, Information and Social Affairs), 41, 121, 124, 134

Ministère de la justice (MINIJUST or Ministry of Justice), 110, 160, 167

Ministère du genre et de la promotion de la femme (MIGEPROF or Ministry of Gender and Family

Promotion), 125

missionaries (White Fathers or Pères Blancs), 50, 56, 63, 74

modernization, in Rwanda, 134, 135, 143–44, 149–50, 179–81

modernization nyakatsi program, 31, 208n1

moral authority, of RPF, 22, 83–84, 89–90, 102, 162

moral hierarchy, and 1994 genocide, 20, 80

most vulnerable/abject poor or umutindi nyakujya (pl. abatindi nyakujya), 7, 16, 17, 139–40

mourning week commemorations, 51, 108, 111, 116–17, 151, 152–55

Mouvement démocratique républicain (MDR or Republican Democratic Movement), 86–87, 91, 96, 98,

113, 211n9

Mouvement révolutionnaire national pour le développement et la démocratie (MRND[D] or National

Revolutionary Movement for Development and Democracy), 210n7

Mouvement révolutionnaire national pour le développementorNationalRevolutionary Movement for

Development (MRND): inner circle of power and, 73–74; parties associated with, 86–87, 210n4,

210n7; party to promote unity during postindependence period and, 71; politics during postgenocide

period and, 91–93, 96, 210n7. See also Interahamwe or youth wing of MRND

Mouvement social muhutu (MSM or Social Movement for Muhutu), 67

MRND (Mouvement révolutionnaire national pour le développement or National Revolutionary

Movement for Development). See Interahamwe or youth wing of MRND; Mouvement révolutionnaire

national pour le développement or National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND)





MRND[D] (Mouvement révolutionnaire national pour le développement et la démocratie or National

Revolutionary Movement for Development and Democracy), 210n7

MSF (Médecins sans frontières or Doctors without Borders), 20

MSM (Mouvement social muhutu or Social Movement for Muhutu), 67

Muhanga (formerly Gitarama), 33, 34, 70, 134, 138

Museveni, Yoweri, 89

Musinga (king), 61–64

mwami (king), 54, 59, 61–64

myths and falsehoods: ethnic divisions as historically false and, 7, 50–51, 58–59, 81–84; ethnic unity as

historically false and, 54, 60–61, 184; Hamitic myth and, 56–57, 71; national unity and, 25; peace,

security, and rehabilitation of Rwanda and, 15–16, 41, 102, 107–8, 110, 161–62, 184, 186–88; RPF’s

reinterpretation of role in 1994 genocide and, 18–19, 53, 84, 95, 112; Tutsi as elite and, 55. See also

truth


aming/renaming places, and decentralization, 12, 32, 33, 51–52, 59

ational courts, 160, 166, 171

ational holidays, 51

ational mourning week commemorations, 51, 108, 111, 116–17, 151, 152–55

National Resistance Army (NRA), 89

National Resistance Movement (NRM), 89

National Service of Gacaca Jurisdictions (NSGJ), 23, 166–67, 169

ational symbols, 51, 118–19

National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), 23, 50, 119–20, 124, 142, 149, 209nn2–3,

212n8

and, 209n2; bottom-up analysis of, 23, 193; boundaries of policy and, 83, 111, 175, 185; civil society

organizations cooptation by, 124–25, 147; collectivization of Hutu guilt and, 115–16; democracy and,

110; denunciations and, 111, 115–16, 119; disappeared and, 98, 110–11, 114, 128–29, 172;

divisionism and, 12–13, 51, 110, 112–13, 124, 147; education system curriculum and, 120, 212n9;

elites and, 107–8; ethnic divisions as historically false and, 7, 50–51, 58–59, 81–84, 98, 184; ethnic

identity manipulation by, 7, 17, 51, 56, 65, 69, 71–73, 81, 184; ethnicity discussion as silenced by,

108, 113–15; ethnic unity and, 13, 22, 112; forgiveness by Tutsi in context of, 47–48, 114, 121, 133,

138, 148, 167, 173–74; genocide ideology and, 13, 51, 75, 83, 113, 124, 148–49, 171–72, 211n5;

grassroots broad-based support for, 166, 187–88; human rights and, 110, 124–25; Hutu moderates and,

111, 113, 210n3; Hutu-perpetrators or perpetrators as term of use and, 111, 114, 115, 211n3; Hutus’

truth telling in context of, 47–48, 84, 111–12, 114–15, 121, 133, 138, 147–49, 167–68; as illegitimate

in context of peasants’ everyday lives, 7–8, 25–26, 107–8, 155, 161, 163–64, 186–88; imprisonment as

punishment and, 51, 104, 110–16, 124; individual compliance with, 8, 119–20, 151, 155, 183, 189–90;

justification for, 79–85; laws in support of, 104, 124, 211n5; local officials’ role under, 8, 48, 110–11,

121, 123; media in context of state control of public information and, 113, 119, 168; moral authority

of RPF and, 22, 83–84, 89–90, 102, 162; national holidays and, 51; national mourning week

commemorations and, 51, 108, 111, 116–17, 151, 152–55; national symbols and, 51, 118–19; NURC

and, 23, 50, 119–20, 124, 142, 149, 209nn2–3, 212n8; oppression in everyday life of peasants and, 4, 6,

12, 19, 107–11, 146, 167–69; peace and security through, 15–16, 41, 102, 107–8, 110, 161–62, 184,

186–88; performance contracts and, 41, 72, 110, 123, 142–43, 206, 209n4, 211n2; power relations and,





105, 109–0, 192–93; public speech boundaries in context of 1994 genocide and, 114, 165, 185;

remarriage and privileges under, 125, 128; repression of political dissent and, 13, 15, 85, 113; rules

and regulations for, 7, 9, 51, 86, 112; Rwandan identity versus ethnic identity and, 17, 108, 113–15;

sanctions and, 110–12; scholarship on, 22–23; silenced discussion of violence in 1990s and, 16, 19–20,

24, 106, 114, 120; simplistic version of genocide by Hutu versus individual acts of genocide and, 17–

21, 79–85, 105–8, 112, 115–18; simplistic version of Tutsi-survivors by, 17–20, 79–82, 111, 114–16;

social shunning and, 111, 121, 128–29, 170; social surveillance and, 111, 123–24, 128, 168–69, 171;

socioeconomic structure and, 7; structural violence and, 50–54, 79–80; surveillance by government

and, 15, 111, 128, 130, 162; as top-down policy, 10, 106, 108, 143, 145, 183; truth in context of, 47–

48; Tutsi-survivor or survivor as term of use and, 111, 114–15, 116. See also everyday resistance to

national unity practices; gacaca court; reeducation camp (ingando); Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)

Ndadaye, Melchior, 91

Ndahiro, Alfred, 22

Ndangiza, Fatuma, 212n8

Newbury, Catharine, 16, 61, 208n11

Newbury, David, 208n11

ew Rwanda, the, 4, 16, 54, 207n4

NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 19, 101–2, 124–25

972 genocide against Hutu in Burundi, 70

994 genocide: overview of, 80–81, 85, 105–6; causes for, 50–51, 74, 184, 187; civilian killings during,

81, 84; civil war as historical context for, 85, 193–94; culture of violence and, 85, 88, 92; elite

leadership plans for, 50–51, 74, 80; “events of 1994” or “in 1994” as terms of use for, 82; France, 31;

genocide as acceptable cost for RPF and, 95; Hutu and Tutsi mixed relations and motivations for acts

during, 80–81, 82; Hutu Power extremists and, 93, 96; individual acts of genocide versus RPF’s

official version of, 17–21, 79–85, 105–8, 112, 117–18; militias and, 31–32, 80; moral hierarchy and,

20, 80; official simplistic version of Tutsi-survivors of, 17–20, 79–82, 111, 114–16; official simplistic

version versus Hutu’s individual acts of genocide and, 17–21, 79–85, 105–8, 112, 115–18; physical

violence during, 37–38, 45, 76–77, 81, 82, 96; Presidential Guard and, 80, 95; scholarship on, 18–23;

sexual violence during, 37–38, 45, 76–77, 81, 82; statistics on deaths during, 81; Tutsi as perpetrators

and, 81

ongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 19, 101–2, 124–25

Nordstrom, Carolyn, 29–30

orthern and northwest Rwanda: civil war (1990–94) and, 88–90; ethnic identity during precolonial

period in, 58; ethnic relations between Hutu and Tutsi in, 72; Hutu elite from, 68–69, 71, 73, 86–87;

Hutu Power extremists in, 91–97, 99–100, 102–3, 106, 114; internal security situation in, 102;

naming/renaming places under decentralization policy and, 32, 32 ;patron-client practice in, 49 ;

power relations in, 192; research and, 34; tourism in, 134. See also specific towns

NRA (National Resistance Army), 89

NRM (National Resistance Movement), 89

NSGJ (National Service of Gacaca Jurisdictions), 23, 166–67, 169

Ntaryamira, Cyprien, 94

NURC (National Unity and Reconciliation Commission), 23, 50, 119–20, 124, 142, 149, 209nn2–3,

212n8

Nyamagabe (formerly Gikongoro), 134, 154

yumbakumi (ten-household groupings), 121, 123, 167–68, 208n7


Oath of Oneness, 98, 211n11

bedient and docile peasants discourse by elite: as cause for 1994 genocide, 51, 82, 110; colonial period

and, 65; everyday resistance versus, 133, 188; postcolonial period and, 51; poverty and, 179; Rwandan

culture of concealing feelings and, 143–44; socioeconomic structure in context of, 138, 149;

underworld of conduct and ritual versus, 161–62; withdrawn muteness and, 155–56

Obote, Milton, 89

Office of the President reports, 23

Office Rwandaise du tourism et des parcs nationaux (ORTPN), 134

ld-caseload returnees, 96–97, 101, 104, 211n11

Olive (pseud.), 108, 137, 199

one Rwanda for all Rwandans”: ethnic identity versus, 17, 108, 113–15; gacaca court and, 162, 163,

175; national anthem’s promotion of, 118; national unity and, 7, 17, 113, 175, 184; Oath of Oneness

and, 98, 211n11. See also unity among ethnic groups

ne with deep-rooted principles or igipinga (pl. ibipinga), 146, 206, 212n5

pen defiance or speaking out versus everyday resistance, 146

Opération Turquoise (Zone turquoise), 95, 96

pponents and accusers, of RPF, 113, 146, 206, 212n5

ppression, in peasants’ everyday life, 4, 6, 12, 19, 107–11, 146, 167–69

rdinary peasants. See peasants

Organic Law, 104, 211n5

ORTPN (Office Rwandaise du tourism et des parcs nationaux), 134


AC (Presidential Advisory Council), 212n8

acifique (pseud.), 199

ADE (Parti démocratique or Democratic Party), 210n7

ARMEHUTU (Parti du mouvement de l’é mancipation hutu or Hutu Emancipation Movement Party),

67–69, 86

arti chrétien démocrate (PCD or Christian Democratic Party), 87

articipants, Rwandan: anonymity and pseudonyms for, 27, 37–39, 207n7; coproduction of knowledge

with, 44–46; education system and achievement for, 72; everyday resistance by, 14–16; informed

consent and, 37–38; in-kind payments to, 43; interviews, and procedure and protocol with, 26–27, 36–

44, 209n2; life history interviews with, 3–4, 29–30, 36–37, 45, 183–84, 192; local government

officials’ interactions with, 72–73; memories of, 45–46; national unity requirements of, 23;

participants, as term of use, 36; reeducation camp experience for, 35; resistance to national unity acts

by, 23; resistance to state by, 5–6; selection and characteristics of, 23, 34–36; social class position for,

72–73; socioeconomic status of, 23, 35; speaking out against RPF by, 23; “survivors” self-

identification of, 23; therapeutic effects for, 43–44; trauma counselors for, 44; trust and rapport with,

39, 42–43; women as, 35, 38. See also methods and research

arti démocratique (PADE or Democratic Party), 210n7

arti démocratique islamique (PDI or Islamic Democratic Party), 210n7

arti du mouvement de l’é mancipation hutu (PARMEHUTU or Hutu Emancipation Movement Party),





67–69, 86

arti libéral (PL or Liberal Party), 87, 91

arti progressiste de la jeunesse rwandaise (PPJR or Progressive Rwandan Youth Party), 210n7

arti social démocrate (PSD or Social Democratic Party), 87, 91, 98

arti socialiste rwandais (PSR or Rwandan Socialist Party), 210n7

atron (shebuja), 49, 55. See also patron-client practice (umuheto)

atron-client practice (umuheto), 24, 49, 55, 59, 61–62, 64–66, 69, 88. See also patron (shebuja)

CD (Parti chrétien démocrate or Christian Democratic Party), 87

DI (Parti démocratique islamique or Islamic Democratic Party), 210n7

eace, security, and rehabilitation, of Rwanda, 15–16, 41, 102, 107–8, 110, 161–62, 184, 186–88

easants’ everyday lives: overview of, 8; covered shoes regulation and, 10, 134, 136; educational

achievement and, 72; as “knowers,” 14, 28, 183; under local officials, 8, 11, 19, 186–87, 208n7;

modernization effects on, 134, 135, 143–44, 149–50, 179–81; national unity practices as illegitimate

in context of, 7–8, 25–26, 107–8, 155, 161, 163–64, 186–88; power relations and, 7–8, 11, 19, 186–87,

192–93, 208n7; as structured under national unity, 7–8; truth of, 175– 79. See also obedient and docile

peasants discourse by elite; socioeconomic structure; state power as lived experience

ères Blancs (White Fathers or missionaries), 50, 56, 63, 74

erformance (imihigo) contracts, 41, 72, 110, 123, 142–43, 206, 209n4, 211n2

erpetrators of genocide (génocidaires) , 81, 205, 211n3. See also Hutu-perpetrators or perpetrators of

genocide (génocidaires)

ham, Phuong N., 166

hysical violence: during 1994 genocide, 37–38, 45, 76–77, 81, 82, 96; during civil war (1990–94), 49,

85, 88, 90, 92–96, 154; in displacement camps, 31–32, 38, 97, 103, 154; under Habyarimana, 91–93; in

refugee camps, 100; RPF and, 102–3

L (Parti libéral or Liberal Party), 87, 91

lummer, Ken, 29

olitical elites (elites). See elites (political elites); obedient and docile peasants discourse by elite;

postindependence period (1962–90); state power as lived experience; structural violence

olitical transition period: civil war during, 85–88, 91–95; culture of violence during, 85; ethnic hatred

promotion during, 91–95; Habyarimana and, 85–87, 91–95; Hutu elites and, 92–95; Hutu moderates

and, 92, 95; RPF and, 85–86, 105; Tutsi and, 91–95

olitical violence. See civil war (1990–94)

olitics and politicization: chiefs as appointed during colonial period and, 62–66; democracy and, 13,

86–87, 91, 94, 105, 166, 178; of ethnicity, 60–62; ethnographies and, 14, 183; of identity during

precolonial period and, 59–62, 210nn6–7; party ban to promote unity during postindependence period

and, 71; prepolitical acts and, 191; repression and, 13, 15, 85, 113; in royal court during precolonial

period and, 60–62; sociopolitical ideology of state and, 12–13. See also authoritarianism

oor or umukene (pl. abakene), 16, 17, 35, 140, 144

ositivism, 13

ostcolonial governance and leadership, 15, 50–51, 74, 87. See also postindependence period (1962–90);

and specific political leaders

ostgenocide period (1994–96): overview of, 95–96; civilian killings in, 20; collective memory of

genocide and, 51–53, 83; Constitution and, 86, 112; economic growth during, 11–13; French aid

during, 31, 95, 96; national holidays and, 51; national mourning week commemorations and, 51, 108,

111, 116–17, 151, 152–55; national symbols and, 51, 118–19; participants’ protests during, 23; rituals





and, 51–53, 83; sociopolitical structure during, 8. See also gacaca court; government administration;