Control of Speech in Japan and Germany Censorship under the American Occupation

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Japanese Closed Linguistic Space 1

1.2 Comparative Historical Approach on Japan and Germany 4

1.3 Extant Studies of Occupation and Control of Freedom of Speech 6

1.4 Arguments Emerging from Criticism of Etō’s Position 8

1.5 Main Arguments in this Thesis 12

2 U.S.: Planning Policies during World War II 14

2.1 General Planning 14

2.2 Planning for Japan 16

2.2.1 Drafting Occupation Policy in Washington 16

2.2.2 Planning of Censorship Policy for Japan 19

2.2.3 In Washington 19

2.2.4 In the Pacific 20

2.3 Planning for Germany 21

2.3.1 Drafting the Occupation Policy 21

2.3.2 Planning of Censorship Policy 24

2.4 Inconsistencies between the Framework for Occupation and Information Control? 27

3 Enforcement: American Military Governments’ Organization and System 29

3.1 Allied Occupation 29

3.1.1 GHQ/SCAP in Japan: Sprawling Organization 30

3.1.2 OMGUS in Germany 34

3.2 American Media: A Model of Democratic Journalism 36

3.2.1 Flourished American Commercial Magazines In Japan 36

3.2.2 American Official Newspaper: Neue Zeitung in Germany 38

3.3 The Differences among the thought of the American Military Officers 41

4 Enforcement: the Continuity/Discontinuity of Journalists 43

4.1 Who could become Postwar Journalists? 43

4.1.1 Continuity of Individual Journalists in the early stage 43

4.1.2 Continuity in the Relationship between ex-establishment and the press: the Press Clubs 45

4.1.3 Current Press Clubs 46

4.2 The Licensed Press in Germany: Expulsion ex-Nazi Journalists 47

4.3 Major Differences in the Continuity of Individual Journalist 50

5 Enforcement: Censorship and the Press 51

5.1 Censorship in Japan 51

5.1.1 Press Code and Secret Key Logs 51

5.1.2 Pre-Censorship to Post-Censorship 55

5.1.3 Pre-publication Censorship from 1945-1949? 55

5.1.4 Post-publication Censorship from 1949-1952 57

5.1.5 Self-Censorship 58

5.2 Censorship in Germany 59

5.2.1 A Case of German “Self-Censorship” 61

5.3 The Difference of Continuity between Japan and Germany 63

6 The Crossroads of Democratization Process and Freedom of Speech 65

6.1 Criticism of the Authorities 65

6.1.1 SCAP/ the Allies and Japanese Government 65

6.1.2 Criticism of Power in Germany 66

6.2 Making a Constitution 67

6.2.1 Who made the Japanese Constitution? 67

6.2.2 Making Basic Law in Germany 70

6.3 Labor Movement 70

6.3.1 Labor Movement, Communism, and Censorship in Japan 70

6.3.2 Arbitrary Execution of Censorship to the Communists 72

6.3.3 Negotiations and Compromise in Germany 74

6.4 Security Treaty and Rearmament 74

6.4.1 Secret Decision in Japan 74

6.4.2 Negotiation and Compromise in West Germany 75

6.5 Difference of the Relationship between the Political Leaders 76

6.6 Lessons from the Cases of meeting of Democratization and Control of Information 77

7 Causes of the Suppression of Freedom of Speech Society 79

8 Conclusions 83

Appendix 86

Appendix 1: The Press Code for Japan 86

Appendix 2: Censorship Key logs 87

Appendix 3: The Number of the Articles and Books with Censorship 89

Appendix 4: The Number of the Companies with Censorship 91

Appendix 5: The member of this club was also limited to the major newspapers. 92

Appendix 6: Space Percentage of News Source of the Three Major Newspapers 95

Bibliography 97

Table 1: The Number of Censored Materials by PPB in the end of 1947 32

Table 2: The Numbers of CCD Staffs 33

Table 3: The Number of Staffs of Foreign Media in Japan, 13 October 1945. 37

Table 4: Newspaper Licensed Granted in the U.S. Zone, 1945-1948. 61

Table 5: The Number of Newspaper Company and Magazines allowed to Publish. 63

Table 6: Censorship of Freedom of Speech Society <1. Conflict inside Americans> 79

Table 7: Censorship of the Suppression of Freedom of Speech Society <2. Conditions of Censorship> 80

Table 8: Censorship and the Suppression of Freedom of Speech <3. Reaction to Censorship> 81

Graph 1: The Number of the Articles and Books with Censorship 56

Graph 2: The Number of the Newspaper Companies with Censorship 56

Photo 1: Seal on Envelope 55