Corbicula an annotated bibliography 1774 2005

Growth and settlement of Corbicula japonica were studied in 2 sites of Lake Shinji i.e. Tamayu and Hikawa from June 1992 to March 1994. Annual growth rings were observed on the external surface of the shell. According to the number of growth rings, there were 6-ring groups of C. japonica in Tamayu site. In Hikawa site, 3-ring groups were observed where 0-ring group was dominant among the groups. The mean shell length of each ring group was higher at Hikawa site compared to Tamayu site. Shell growth was high form spring to autumn, and very low during winter. Growth pattern in soft tissue differed between 1-ring group and 2 or 3-ring groups. The latter groups decreased their weight from June to September 1992. Settled juveniles appeared throughout the year. The density of juveniles was high from spring to autumn, and very low in winter. Many C. japonica juveniles settled in each site, but reduction level of post-settled juveniles was higher at Hikawa site than Tamayu site.

Takagi, I. and W. Simidu. 1963. Studies on muscle of aquatic animals   XXXV. Seasonal variation of chemical constituents and extractive nitrogens in some species of shellfish. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 29(1):66 70. [Japanese with English Summary]

Among various species of shellfish, one group changes its flavor depending on season. For instance, the common oyster, Ostrea lapérousei Schrenck, is more flavorful in winter than in its spawning months of June through September. The other, e.g., the short necked clam, Venerupis semidecussata (Reeve), shows little change throughout the year. Chemical constituents most affecting flavor are reported to be monoamino nitrogen extractives   particularly glycine. The present work was therefore undertaken to confirm the general knowledge of palatability of the two groups of shellfish by comparing seasonal levels of their extracted nitrogen constituents.

Takahashi, S. 1986. Pearls found in Corbicula leana. Chiribotan 16(4):111 112. [Japanese]

Takeuchi, M., C. Mizuta, K. Uda, N. Fujimoto, M. Okamoto and T. Suzuki. 2004. Unique evolution of Bivalvia arginine kinases. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 61(1):110-117.

The clams Pseudocardium, Solen, Corbicula and Ensis possess a unique form of arginine kinase (AK) with a molecular mass of 80 kDa and an unusual two-domain structure, a result of gene duplication and subsequent fusion. These AKs also lack two functionally important amino acid residues, Asp(62) and Arg(193), which are strictly conserved in other 40-kDa AKs and are assumed to be key residues for stabilizing the substrate-bound structure. However, these AKs show higher enzyme activity. The cDNA-derived amino acid sequences of 40-kDa AKs from the blood clam Scapharca broughtonii and the oyster Crassostrea gigas were determined. While Asp(62) and Arg(193) are conserved in Scapharca AK, these two key residues are replaced by Asn and Lys, respectively, in Crassostrea AK. The native enzyme from Crassostrea and both of the recombinant enzymes show an enzyme activity similar to that of two-domain clam AKs and at least twofold higher than that of other molluskan AKs. Although the replacement of Asp(62) or Arg(193) by Gly in normal AK causes a considerable decrease in V(max) (6-15% of wild-type enzyme) and a two- to threefold increase in K(m) for arginine, the same replacement in Scapharca AK had no pronounced effect on enzyme activity. Together with the observation that bivalve AKs are phylogenetically distinct from other molluscan AKs, these results suggest that bivalve AKs have undergone a unique molecular evolution; the characteristic stabilizing function of residues 62 and 193 has been lost and, consequently, the enzyme shows higher activity than normal.

Talavera, F. and L. A. Faustino. 1933. Edible mollusks of Manila. Philippine Journal of Science 50:1 58.

Tamura, M., C. Matsuoka and T. Yokoyama. 1977. Stratigraphy of Gamo Formation of Plio Pleistocene Kobiwako Group in the northern hills of Minakuchi cho, south of Lake Biwa, central Japan. Journal of the Geological Society of Japan 83(12):749 762.

The stratigraphy of the Gamo Formation in the middle horizon of the Plio Pleistocene Kobiwako Group is described. The Gamo Formation, about 480 m thick, covers conformably the Sayama Formation. The lithostratigraphy and tephrostratigraphy of the Gamo Formation can be summarized as follows: Upper Part (Kasuga alternations); Alternations of sandy silt, sand and gravel, intercalated with volcanic ash beds (Hara, Ikenowaki, Naka, Kitawaki volcanic ash beds in ascending order). Middle Part (Hino clays); alternations of sand and clay (clay is dominant), intercalated with Sakuradani, Hino I, II, III, Yokigaoka, Murasaki, Nakayama, and Toyota volcanic ash beds in ascending order. Lower Part (Nunobikiyama alternations); alternations of sand and clay intercalated with Naiki, Minamihizusa, Kaigake, Hazama, Komazuki, Mushono volcanic ash beds in ascending order. The Gamo Formation is covered conformably by the Yokaichi Formation. The columnar sections of this formation are presented in figures. The volcanic ash beds in this formation are good keys for regional stratigraphy because of their distinctive characters. Also, paleomagnetic polarity of some volcanic ash beds such as Hazama, Mushono, Kono II, III, and Murasaki was measured. All samples show reversed polarity, and it is assigned to the Matuyama Reversed Epoch on the basis of the age of Kono II ash bed which is dated 2.2+0.3 million years. Fossil Corbicula are discussed.

Tamura, T. 1959. Propagation of Corbicula. Science of Aquaculture 4:378 381. [Japanese]

Tan, K. 1934. On the variation of recent and pre historic specimens of Corbicula maxima Prime. Venus, Japanese Journal of Malacology 5:289 300. [Japanese with English summary]

A very large fluviatile bivalve referable to Corbicula maxima Prime occurs in the estuary of the Tansui River near Taihoku, Formosa. The distribution of the species is extremely restricted; it has been found neither in any other regions of Formosa or Japan, except in the small area near the mouth of the Tansui River. But this species is abundant in the shell mounds at Maruyama Park in Taihoku City, the bank of the upper course of the Tansui River, where it is not at present found living. The shell mounds have been built up by an ancient race of this island, and it is remarkable that there are formed almost exclusively of the shells of this species, with the exception of a very few marine and freshwater molluscs mingled with them.

In the shell mounds, together with shells of Corbicula maxima, which is almost identical with the recent form, there is also found another distinct form, the shell of which is very thick, rugose in sculpture and generally small in size; the general shape is more elongated triangular than that of the recent form. These specimens are so different from the recent samples that we might take it for a distinct species if there were not transitional forms between them. The conspicuous variation of this species seems to be due to the regression of the sea from the basin of Taihoku at some recent time.

The differences between the recent and pre historic specimens are shown by the ratio of height to length, inequilaterality of the angle between the lateral teeth, and the depth of the shell. Measurements and descriptions of both forms of Corbicula maxima are provided.

Tan, K. 1938. Some molluscan fossils of the Syokkozan Formation. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 15:17 30.

Several molluscs, including Corbicula insularis, are discussed from the Pleistocene Syokkozan formation of Taityu Prefecture, Formosa.

Tan Tiu, A. 1986. Temporal and seasonal variation in shell microstructure of Corbicula fluminea and Polymesoda caroliniana (Corbiculidae: Sphaeriacea) from Mississippi, U.S.A. American Malacological Bulletin 4(2):234. [Abstract]

Bivalves' capability to produce different shell microstructural types as a response to changing environment is a compromise between the "desirable" state and the limitation of the genotype. Understanding the constraints and range of these parameters in their shells is basic to the understanding of paleo and recent events that brought about these changes, biomineralization and molluscan phylogeny.

The internal shell surface microstructure of wild and caged (marked) Corbicula fluminea and Polymesoda caroliniana were examined seasonally from June 1985 to March 1986 (June 1985 samples have yet to be examined). Other parameters examined seasonally were biomass and related parameters, and reproductive stages. Physicochemical parameters of the water and sediment organic content were measured monthly.

Internal shell surface microstructure in both species reflects seasonal as well as habitat differences. Preliminary analyses suggest that certain shell microstructural types (i.e. spiral, pseudospiral, rosette, reticulate, etc.) are associated with high growth rate, condition index, langelier saturation index and cool temperature, but not reproductive stage or shell organic content.

Tan Tiu, A. 1987. Influence of Environment on Shell Microstructure of Corbicula fluminea and Polymesoda caroliniana (Bivalvia: Heterodonta). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi (Hattiesburg). 148 pp.

The primary objective of the research was to determine whether internal shell surfaces of bivalves that have outer crossed lamellar and inner complex crossed lamellar shells layers would exhibit temporal and/or spatial variations. Secondary objectives were to determine whether these surficial microstructures would be associated with the conditional status of the clams and environmental factors.

Temporal and spatial variation of internal shell surface microstructure, shell organic content, condition index, reproductive stage, and growth rate in natural and caged Corbicula fluminea in the Leaf River, Perry County, Mississippi, and Polymesoda caroliniana in a natural marsh, a continually submerged (devoid of vegetation) or irregularly emerged marsh in Jackson County, Mississippi, are described and discussed in relation to one another and environmental conditions.

Internal shell surface microstructures outside the pallial line are less variable than those inside the pallial line. The extent of shell surface variation outside the pallial line, in the form of spiral crossed lamellar microstructures, occurs more commonly during colder seasons and is possibly unique to Corbicula fluminea. Near spiral microstructures outside the pallial line in Polymesoda caroliniana showed similar seasonal patterns of variation in all three groups regardless of habitat and thus can be considered conservative. Shell microstrucures outside the pallial line can possibly be used in taxonomic and phylogenetic evaluation of the Corbiculacea.

Internal shell surface microstructures in wild and caged clams typically showed similar seasonal patterns. Moreover, there were shell microstructural patterns that reflect the "condition" of the clam consequent to changes in environmental parameters associated with season.

In Polymesoda caroliniana, presence and frequency of occurrence of Complex Crossed Lamella One (CCL 1) inside the pallial line reflect habitat differences. CCL 1 is consistently present in submerged clams, presently only in June and September in wild clams, and absent in emerged clams. Reticulate Microstructure (RM) inside the pallial line in P. caroliniana is positively associated with high condition index suggesting that this microstructure was actively deposited, while in Corbicula fluminea, RM was mainly due to dissolution.

Stress is apparently not the main factor controlling shell microstructural modification. Both clams, regardless of habitat, showed "normal" reproductive stages, and no significant correlation exists between shell organics and microstructure. Shell microstructure is apparently not coupled with most of the biological parameters considered herin. The environment influences shell microstructural expression, as presented here, within bounds and constraints of the genome.

Tan Tiu, A. and R. S. Prezant. 1989. Shell tubules in Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia: Heterodonta): Functional morphology and microstructure. The Nautilus 103(1):36-39.

Narrow tubules are relatively common structures that permeate bivalve mollusc shells. Although well documented, they remain poorly understood. These tubules are more common in epifaunal than infaunal bivalves. Corbicula fluminea, unlike the corbiculids Polymesoda caroliniana and P. (Gelonia) erosa, possesses numerous shell tubules. These tubules, which are filled by mantle extensions, could be involved in lightening juvenile shells thereby decreasing the drift load during "planktonic" dispersal, and help in anchoring the mantle to the shell during locomotion or biomineralization.

Tan Tiu, A. and R. S. Prezant. 1989. Temporal variation in microstructure of the inner shell surface of Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia: Heterodonta). American Malacological Bulletin 7(1):65-71.

Temporal variation of shell microstructure with emphasis on the inner shell surface was examined in caged and noncaged Corbicula fluminea from the Leaf River, Mississippi. Shell structure in the outer shell layer, overlain by the periostracum, exhibited distinct seasonal variation from crossed-lamellar in warmer months to structures resembling cone complex crossed-lamellar in cooler months. The shell microstructure ventral to the pallial line is of possible use in taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses of the Corbiculacea and could also be of value as an environmental monitor because the microstructures in this region were less variable than those dorsal to the pallial line.

Tan Tiu, A. and R. S. Prezant. 1992. The role of environment in shell growth dynamics of the Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Malacological Review 25(1-2):109-118.

Tanaka, Y. 1984. Morphological and physiological characteristics of the post larval stages in Corbicula japonica Prime, reared in the laboratory. Bulletin of the National Research Institute of Aquaculture (Japan)/Yoshokukenho 6:23 27.

The brackish water clam, Corbicula japonica, is one of the most important bivalves in Japan. Larval and post larval culture was carried out using an unicellular diatom, Chaetoceros ceratosporum as food. It took about 10 days after fertilization to reach post larval stage with low umbones, measuring 210 220 um in shell length, in sea water with salinity of 5 to 10 ppt and temperature of 26^oC and 30^oC. The early young shells, measuring 1.5   2.0 mm in length, bear bristles sporadically, without color pattern on the outer shell surface. The growth rate of two month old bivalves measuring 3   5 mm in length, was highest at 25 to 30^oC, but was almost nil at 12.5^oC. At the post larval stages of 200   300 um, 1.5   2.0 mm and 5.7 + 0.73 mm in each shell length, the lower salinity limits of tolerance were approximately 1.7 ppt, 0.3 ppt of salinity and ground freshwater, respectively. They could survive in brackish waters with very low salinity and sometimes even in fresh water.

Tanaka, Y. 1984. Salinity tolerance of the brackish water clam, Corbicula japonica Prime. Bulletin of the National Research Institute of Aquaculture (Japan)/Yoshokukenho 6:29 32.

The dioecious clam, Corbicula japonica, is a typical brackish water species inhabiting estuaries. To clarify the influence of salinity on vitality of the clams, the ciliary activity of excised gill tissue, filtration rate using neutral red solution, and mortality, were measured using various dilute solutions of seawater. The suitable salinity for the clams was found to be 3.5 to 10.5 ppt, with a lower limit of 0.3 ppt and an upper limit of about 21 ppt. The clams could survive even in freshwater is the were gradually acclimated.

Tang, Z. 1985. Studies on the life history of Phyllodistomum mingensis. Acta Zoologica Sinica 31(3):246 253.

The Phyllodistomum species was critically compared with Phyllodistomum macrobranchicola and Phyllodistomum lesteri and was found to be distinguished from both of them in several important aspects. The name Phyllodistomum mingensis sp. nov. was given. The molluscan intermediate host is Corbicula fluminea (Müller). The second intermediaries are Macrobranchium nipponensis (deHaan) and Macrobranchium aspergillus von Martens. The definitive host is Lateolabrax japonicus. The locations of the parasite in the bosy of fish are the urinary bladder, ureter, and the intestine. A detailed description of the development of the parasite is included.

Tanita, S. and K. Hirano. 1952. Matsushima-wan fukin no shijimi ni kansuru kenkyuu [Corbicula japonica found in the vicinity of Matsuhsima Bay]. Bulletin of the Tohoku National Fisheries Research Institute, Shiogama 1:68-81. [Japanese with English summary]

Corbicula japonica collected from the Takagi-river, the Tohna-canal, and the Teizan-canal is studied from the ecological and statistical standpoint. Corbicula habitats brackish-water but as the direction of stream changes according to the tide, the chlorinity of the water was found to range from 0.32 0/00 to 15.28 0/00. Among the localities, the Takagi-river bottom contains the most gravels, the Tohna-canal bottom is the most muddy and its habitation density is the least. The habitation density in the Teizan-canal varies with station and large shells are scanty. No differences were found in shape between the localities or in sex. The shellshape of Corbicula changes a little according to the growth. The height and breadth of the shell increase faster than the length to a length of 17 arrow right 8mm., but after attaining L. 18mm the growth rate of height and length are nearly equal and the breadth becomes slower. These changes in shell form are not so remarkable as in the case of C. fluminea or C. japonica forma elatior. Little differences are found in the density number according to the distance from the river shore and large shells dwell relatively abundantly near the shores. In the Takagi-river, the mean habitation density is 220/m². From the calculation, more than 2/3 of the total available stocks are collected each year. In the Tohna-canal, the large shells are found relatively abundantly but as the density is very small, the stock of Corbicula is pause. In the Teizan-canal, the density varies according to stations, the number of available shells is less than 5% even in the station where this number is dense; probably resulting from over-fishing.

Tapparone Canefri, C. 1883. Fauna malacologica delle Nuova Guinea a delle isole adiancenti. Annali Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria (Genova) 19:1 313.

Tapparone Canefri, C. 1889. Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e Regioni Vivine. 18. Molluschi Terrestri e D'Aqua Dolce. Instituto Sordo Muti (1889). 82 pp.

Corbicula irawadica is discussed from Mandalay, and the Irawaddy River.

Tate, R. 1887. Descriptions of some new species of South Australian marine and freshwater Mollusca. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 9:62 75.

Tate, R. 1896. Report, Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia. Part II, Zoology.

Tatem, H. E. 1981. Polychlorinated biphenyl accumulation by Macrobrachium and Corbicula exposed to contaminated sediment. Estuaries 4(3):260. [Abstract]

Freshwater prawns, Macrobrachium, and Corbicula were used to test the availability of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) present in a sediment obtained from the Sheboygan River, Wisconsin. Questions have been raised concerning the availability of sediment adsorbed PCB. This paper presents results from two pilot experiments where prawns or Corbicula were exposed to contaminated sediment. Animals were in close physical contact with the sediment and were exposed to suspended and settled material. Macrobrachium were exposed to sediment containing 8.85 ppm PCB with samples on days l, 3, 7, 12, 19, and 25. Bioaccumulation was detectable after < 2 hr exposure. After 25 days, controls contained 0.19 ppm compared to 9.47 ppm PCB in exposed animals. A bioconcentration factor (BCF) of < 1.0 was calculated from the uptake depuration rate constants yet the BCF was derived from the tissue sediment data was > 1.0. Corbicula were exposed to a similar sediment (9.80 ppm PCB) yet after 30 days contained 23.84 ppm PCB. A tissue sediment BCF of 2.4 was calculated for the clams. Accumulation of PCB from sediment by epibenthic invertebrates was rapid and had not reached plateau after 30 days. These pilot tests are being repeated using longer exposure times and additional samples.

Tatem, H. E. 1986. Bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls and metals from contaminated sediment by freshwater prawns, Macrobranchium rosenbergii and clams, Corbicula fluminea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 15(2): 171 184.

Tavernier, R. 1943. De Kwartaire afzettingen van Belge. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift 25:l2l l37.

Lower Corbicula fluminalis bearing sands and gravels belong to the Oostende Formation of Eemian age.

Tavernier, R. 1946. L'evolution de Bas Escant au Pleistocene superieur. Bulletin de la Société Belge de Geologie 55:106 125.

Lower Corbicula fluminalis bearing sands and gravels belong to the Oostende Formation of Eemian age.

Tavernier, R. 1948. Les formations quaternaires de la Belgique en rapport avec l'evolution morphologique du pays. Bulletin de la Société Belge de Geologie 57:609 641.

Lower Corbicula fluminalis bearing sands and gravels belong to the Oostende Formation of Eemian age.

Tavernier, R. 1954. Le quaternaire. IN: Prodrome d'une description geologique de la Belgique. pp. 565 589.

Lower Corbicula fluminalis bearing sands and gravels belong to the Oostende Formation of Eemian age.

Taylor, D. W. 1981. Freshwater mollusks of California: A distributional checklist. California Fish and Game Bulletin 67:140 163.

Taylor, M. P. 1973. Biological monitoring in Wheeler Reservoir before operation of Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant. IN: Thermal Ecology, J. W. Gibbons and R. R. Sharitz, Eds. National Technical Information Service CONF 730595. pp. 399 413.

A four year study provides a data base for characterizing selected biota along a thirty mile reach of the Tennessee River extending above and below the Brown's Ferry Nuclear Plant. The principal application of the data is to be as a comparison of biological conditions before and after the plant begins operation. Benthos and plantkon samples were collected randomly on a quarterly sampling basis from twenty four points in eight transects. Each species was analyzed separately because of its variability in different seasons and years, distribution, and longevity. in the benthic fauna, Corbicula showed no extreme effects from seasonal changes and therefore serves as a good indicator of long-term trends in water quality. Hexagenia and chironomidae did show seasonal effects. Both phytoplankton and zooplankton exhibit noticeable seasonal variations.

Taylor, R. W. 1980. A Survey of the Freshwater mussels of the Ohio River from Greenup Locks and Dam to Pittsburgh, PA. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (Huntington District). v + 71 pp.

The only bivalve found in the upper reaches of the Ohio River was Corbicula leana. The species is apparently able to do well even in the extremely polluted waters in and around the Pittsburgh area as they were found just a few miles below the origin of the Ohio River. It is assumed that C. leana is well into the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers by this time. C. leana extremely abundant in the lower pools and on some beaches shells were numbered in the thousands. They were present in every pool although numbers decreased toward the origin of the river.

Taylor, R. W. 1980. Mussels of Floyds Fork, a small north central Kentucky stream (Unionidae). The Nautilus 94(1):13 15.

A survey of the mussels of Floyd's Fork, a small northcentral Kentucky tributary of the Salt River, was carried out during the summer of 1978. Six stations were collected in Floyd's Fork with a seventh station being located on the Salt River near the confluence of the two streams. Twenty five species were collected. Of these, Quadrula nodulata, Lampsilis teres, and Corbicula leana are reported for the first time as occurring in the Salt River drainage. Floyd's Fork appears to be a stream of high water quality which supports a healthy, rather abundant, highly diversified mussel fauna.

Taylor, R. W. 1980. Freshwater bivalves of Tygart Creek, northeastern Kentucky. The Nautilus 94:89 91.

A survey of the freshwater bivalves of a small northeastern Kentucky stream revealed eighteen species of unionacean mussels, three species of sphaeriacean clams, and Corbicula manilensis. All are reported for the first time from this area.

Taylor, R. W. 1982. The freshwater mussels (Naiads) of Big Indian Creek, a small tributary of the Ohio River (Bivalvia: Unionidae). The Nautilus 96(2):66 68.

A 1979 1981 survey of Big Indian Creek in southern Indiana produced a total of l6 species of freshwater naiads. The exotic clam Corbicula fluminea was also present throughout the stream. The faunal composition was typically Ohioan in nature. The most common species were Lampsilis radiata luteola, Lampsilis ventricosa and Amblema plicata plicata. Lampsilis fasciola, Leptodea fragilis and Toxolasma parvus were each represented by a single specimen.

Taylor, R. W. 1983. A Survey of the Freshwater Mussels of the Kanawha River. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (Huntington District). iii + 61 pp.

As a result of a combination of environmental factors (i.e., daming, pollution, increased siltation, etc.) the lower 8l miles of the Kanawha River must be considered devoir of native mussel life. A single live specimen of the Giant floater, Anadonta grandis grandis at river mile 33 was the only unionid mussel found in this stretch of the river. Throughout this stretch, however, Corbicula fluminea was fairly common. This species is reported from 17 localities between river mile 4 and 92.

Taylor, R. W. 1983. The freshwater naiad (mussel) fauna of the Nolin River in the Green River drainage of central Kentucky (Mollusca: Bivalvia). The Nautilus 97(3):109 112.

A survey of the freshwater mussels (naiads) of Nolin River of the Green River, Kentucky, drainage, produced specimens of 2l species of naiads, and Corbicula fluminea. Six of the species reported in the Nolin River are considered endangered or of special concern by the Kentucky Academy of Science.

Taylor, R. W. 1985. Comments on the distribution of freshwater mussels (Unionacea) of the Potomac River headwaters in West Virginia. The Nautilus 99(2 3):84 87.

This report presents data collected in 198l and 1984 on the mussels of the upper Potomac River located within the eastern panhandle of West Virginia. The results indicate that the North Branch is devoid of mussels apparently as a result of extensive strip mining; South Branch has a small but healthy mussel population. The Cacapon River and Patterson Creek, tributaries of the Potomac, also have viable populations. Eight species of mussels were found in the Potomac headwaters. Corbicula fluminea was found throughout the drainage with the exception of North Branch.

Taylor, R. W. and C. L. Counts, III. 1977. The Asiatic clam, Corbicula manilensis, as a food of the Northern Racoon, Procyon lotor. The Nautilus 91(1):34.

Racoon scats containing Corbicula manilensis shell fragments on the Ohio River 2 miles north of Lesage, West Virginia. Many broken shells were also found.

Taylor, R. W. and R. C. Hughart. 1981. The freshwater naiads of Elk River, West Virginia with a comparison of earlier collections. The Nautilus 95(1):21 25.

During the summers of 1978 and 1979 an extensive survey of the freshwater mussel of the Elk River was conducted. A total of 18 species of unionacean clams plus Corbicula fluminea were collected. A search of the collections of several museums produced evidence that earlier workers had, over the last one hundred years, taken a total of twenty one species from the Elk River. Lampsilis orbiculata, Dysnomia torulosa rangiana, Cyclonaias tuberculata and Lampsilis ovata, which had been reported earlier, were not found and must be presumed no longer present in the Elk River. Corbicula fluminea has spread throughout the Elk River.

Taylor, R. W. and B. D. Spurlock. 1981. A survey of the freshwater mussels (Mollusca: Unionidae) of Middle Island Creek, West Virginia. Brimleyana 7:155 158.

Twenty two native species of freshwater mussels plus Corbicula fluminea were collected from six stations along the seventy five mile course of Middle Island Creek, a tributary of the Ohio River in West Virginia. Eight species are reported from the creek for the first time. C. fluminea was found at all six collecting stations.

Taylor, R. W. and B. D. Spurlock. 1983. Freshwater naiads (mussels) (Pelecypoda: Bivalvia) of Slate Creek, a tributary of the Licking River, Kentucky. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 44(1 2):12 13.

During the summer and fall of 1981, collections of freshwater naiads (mussels) were made from 6 sites along Slate Creek, a tributary of the Licking River. Eighteen species of naiads were found and Corbicula fluminea. Fusconaia maculata and Epioblasma triquetra are currently considered endangered, threatened or rare in Kentucky. F. maculata is a rather rare shell in Slate Creek, but E. triquetra was extremely abundant throughout the stream. All other species reported are commonly found throughout Kentucky.

Tchang, S., S. C. Li and Y. Y. Liu. 1955. Bivalves (Mollusca) of Tung Ting Lake and its surrounding waters. Acta Zoologica Sinica 17:212 213.

Tchernov, E. 1975. The molluscs of the Sea of Galilee. Malacologia 15:147 184.

The greater part of this study on the molluscs of the Sea of Galilee deals with the ecology and distribution of these organisms and considers the primary influences of the lake's physical qualities. Three main factors limit the distribution of molluscs in the lake: 1) the anaerobic zone, 2) the character of the bottom, and 3) storms and wave action.

Temcharoen, P. 1971. New aquatic molluscs from Laos. Archiv für Molluskenkunde 101(1 4):91 109.

Terasaki, Y. 1980. Enrichment and isolation of aerobic chemoheterotrophic spirilla from mud and sand samples. Journal of General and Applied Microbiology 26(6):395 402.

Pure culture isolation of aerobic chemoheterotrophic spirilla from mud and sand samples collected from various freshwater and seawater areas in Japan was accomplished by applying the following three methods in sequence: boiled shellfish (Corbicula japonica) infusion method for enrichment of spirilla; glass capillary method for selection of spirilla; and ordinary streak plate method for pure culture isolation of spirilla. The aerobic spirilla grew well in all enrichment cultures in the 20 experiments performed. Crude cultures containing abundant spirilla were obtained from all enrichment cultures by use of glass capillaries. Pure culture isolation os spirilla from the crude cultures were reliably achieved by the ordinary streak plate method.

Tesana, S. 2002. Diversity of mollusks in the Lam Ta Khong reservoir, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 33(4):733-8

Sampling surveys to study the diversity of mollusks in the Lam Ta Khong reservoir, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, northeast Thailand, were carried out in the hot, rainy and cold seasons. The study area was divided into: Area I--the upper part where the Lam Ta Khong river drains; Area II--the mid-section of the reservoir; Area III--behind the dam. Mollusks were collected from four locations on each bank (to the right and left) of each area. Each location was sampled to include 6 cross-sectional stations; in total, 144 stations were sampled. In the deep water, an Ekman dredge was used to collect samples; the scoop or manual method was used at the water's edge. Ten species of snails and four species of clams were found. The dominant species of snails were: Clea helena, Bithynia siamensis goniomphalos and Melanoides tuberculata; clams were dominated by Corbicula sp. The intermediate host of the human blood fluke was not found. The population of most mollusk species increased during the cold season while that of clams and that of some species of snails increased during the rainy season. Clams and operculate snails predominated in Areas II and III. Pulmonate snails were mostly found close to the bank and on aquatic plants especially in Areas I and II. Operculate snails and clams mainly inhabited water 1 to 10 m deep. Two species of edible mollusks were found: Filopaludina martensi martensi and large numbers of Corbicula. Neither shedding light nor digestion with pepsin A revealed any human parasites in the mollusks sampled.

Teshima, S., A. Kanazawa, S. Koshio, H. Mukai, S. Yamasaki and H. Hirata. 1990. Asari, yamatoshijimi, nanokuroropushisu oyobi kaisan kurorera no shibosan sosei [Fatty acid details for bivalves, Tapes philippinarum and Corbicula japonica, and marine types of algae, Nannochloropsis sp. and Chlorella sp.]. Memoirs of the Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University 39:137-149.

Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) on an open tubular column (a fused silica WCOT CP-Sil 88) was conducted to investigate the fatty acid compositions of lipids from 2 species of bivalves, Tapes philippinarum (Japanese name, "Asari") and Corbicula japonica (Japanese name, Yamatoshijimi), and marine types of algae, Japanese Nannochloropsis sp. (NC) and Malaysian Chlorella sp.

Theobald, W. 1876. Catalogue of Land and Freshwater Shells of British India.

Thiele, J. 1929 1935. Handbuch der Systematische Weichtierkunde. Verlag G. Fischer (Jena). 1154 pp.

Thieneman, A. 1951. Bilder aus der Binnenfischerei auf Java und Sumatra mit Ausblicken auf altertumliche europaische Fischerei methoden. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 19 (Supplement):529 618.

Thom, W. T. and C. E. Dobbins. 1924. Stratigraphy of Cretaceous   Eocene transition beds in eastern Montana and the Dakotas. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 35:481 505.

Thomas, N. A. and K. M. Mackenthun. 1964. Asiatic clam infestation at Charleston, West Virginia. The Nautilus 78(1):28 29.

Thomerson, J. E. and D. G. Myer. 1970. Corbicula manilensis: range extension upstream in the Mississippi River. Sterkiana 37:29.

Specimens of Corbicula manilensis collected from the cooling system and the reservoir of the Granite City Steel Company, Granite City, Illinois, in 1969 extend the range of the species northward. Measurements suggest four year classes and that probably the population first appeared in 1965 with first abundance in 1966.

Thompson, B. A. 1983. The occurrence of the Asiatic freshwater clam, Corbicula fluminea in the Atchafalaya Delta, Louisiana. The Nautilus 97(4):124 125.

The occurrence of Corbicula fluminea in the coastal region of Louisiana is documented and ecological reasons for this penetration are discussed. The possibility of C. fluminea replacing Rangia cuneata is examined.

Thomsen, C. 1984. Use of the Asiatic clam, corbicula for the removal of selected water pollutants. Master of Science in Environmental health Thesis, East Tennessee State University. vii + 43 pp.

Thompson, C. M. and R. E. Sparks. 1977. The Asiatic clam, Corbicula manilensis. in the Illinois River. The Nautilus 91(1):34 36.

In 1974 1975, specimens of Corbicula manilensis were collected at six locations on the Illinois River. Age determinations of clams collected suggest that C. manilensis first appeared in the Illinois River in 1970 1971.

Thompson, C. M. and R. E. Sparks. 1977. Improbability of dispersal of adult Asiatic clams, Corbicula manilensis, via the intestinal tract of migratory waterfowl. American Midland Naturalist 98(1):219 223.

To determine the potentiality for dispersal of Corbicula manilensis via the intestinal tract of waterfowl, live clam specimens were force fed to adult male lesser scaup ducks (Aythya affinis). Examination of duck excreta revealed no egestion of viable individuals. In a second experiment, a simulated waterfowl gizzard was utilized to determine the chemical and physical effects of avian digestion on live Asiatic clams. Mortality of test clams was 100% after 1 min exposure in a solution of synthetic gastric juice.

Thompson, C. M. and R. E. Sparks. 1978. Comparative nutritional value of native fingernail clam and the introduced Asiatic clam. Journal of Wildlife Management 42(2):391 396.

The percentage composition, on a fresh weight asis (shell included), of fingernail clams (Musculum transversum) and Corbicula manilensis was, respectively: 8l.44 and 25.45 percent moisture; 2.46 and 2.35 percent crude protein; 0.36 and 0.19 percent crude fat; 0.34 and 0.86 percent crude fiber; 11.94 and 66.62 percent ash; and 3.46 and 4.53 percent nitrogen free extract. M. transversum contained 0.28 kcal/g and C. manilensis 0.33 kcal/g. C. manilensis took 2.5 times as much hydrochloric acid and time for 95% digestion in a simulated waterfowl gizzard as did M. transversum.

Tilly, L. J. 1976. Clam Survival in Chlorinated Water. E. I. duPont de Nemours and Co., Savannah River Laboratory, ORNL DP 1398. 9 pp.

Corbicula, when buried in sediments, was found highly resistant to chlorination; even at concentrations of 10 40 ppm.

Tilly, L. J., J. C. Corey and N. E. Bibler. 1978. Response of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea to gamma radiation. Health Physics 35(5):704 708. [Also as NTIS No. DP MS 77 70]

Clams in two size groups were able to withstand rather large dosages of gamma radiation with no actual radiation damage becoming evident in 30 days. Exposure up to 8.2 krad resulted in no detectable increase in mortality above controls. Mortality rose steeply at doses of 24 krad and above; LD_100/30 being reached at 57 krad for the large clams, and at 82 krad for the small ones. Estimated LD_50/30 values are 36 krad and 63 krad for the 25  and 9 mm clams respectively. Animals receiving doses up to 20 krad opened up and began apparently normal filtering activity within a few minutes after being returned to fingerbowls. Specimens receiving higher doses showed obvious signs of abnormal functions including generally sluggish behavior, erratic filtering activity and/or no activity at all. For the first day or two at least, all did respond, albeit very slowly in some cases, to mechanical stimulation with a probe.

After receiving a critical dose, both large and small clams appear to have similar survivorship curves; but, as suggested by the LD_100/30 data, the critical dose appears to be somewhat lower for the large than the small clams. Although mortality rates for the 9  and 25 mm clams receiving 47 krad are similar for the first five days, they diverge markedly thereafter with smaller clams showing comparatively extended survivorship.

Tonapi, G. T. 1971. Studies on the freshwater and amphibious Mollusca of Poona with notes on their distribution-Part II. Journal of the Natural History Society, Bombay 68(1):115-126.

The following taxa are described, illustrated and distribution recorded: Cyclophorus (Glossostylus) indicus, Cyclotopsis semistriata, Digoniostoma pulchella, Alocinma orcula var. producta, Paludomus.(Rishetia) obesa, Rachis punctatus, Glessula (Glessula) notigena, G.(G.) ceylanica, G dikarngense, Sitala denselirata, Kaliella bullula, Macrochlamys (Macrochlamys) tenuicola, M.(Eurychlamys) platychlamys, Xesta (Fretum) semirugata, Ariophanta bistralis, Planispira (Trachia) crassicostata, Eulota scalpturita, Indonaia coerulea, Lamellidens consobrinus, Corbicula striatella, C.peninsularis.

Toots, H. and J. E. Fox. 1972. Inversion of aragonite to calcite in Corbicula (Leptesthes) fracta from upper Cretaceous strata of Wyoming. Contributions to Geology 12:11 14.

The shells of Corbicula (Leptesthes) fracta undergo inversion from aragonite to calcite during weathering processes at the present land surface. The strontium percentage is reduced during this inversion. Entombment in an impermeable sediment has been the traditional explanation for the reservation of pre Quaternary aragonite. Such an explanation is not applicable in this instance where the sediment surrounding the aragonitic shells is porous and permeable. Results of this study are consistent with the findings of Kennedy and Hall that amino acid envelopes protect the crystallites of aragonite from inversion as long as the envelopes persist in a reducing environment.

Torres-Orozco, R. B. and E. Revueltas-Valle. 1996. New southernmost record of the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia: Corbiculidae), in Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist 41(1):60-61.

The Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea was introduced by Asian immigrants into the United States circa 1924 (Hillis and Mayden, 1985; Phelps, 1992). Since then its range has gradually expanded to include most areas in which winter: water temperature does not fall below 2^oC, and it has also acquired notoriety as a pest (McMahon, 1991). In 1985, Hillis and Mayden reported the first record of Corbicula into the American tropics as a well established population in the Rio Carrizal, Tamaulipas, Mexico, just south of the Tropic of Cancer (23^o12'N, 97^o59'W). This record was the southernmost known locality of Corbicula fluminea on the Atlantic slope of America, since their search in other southern drainages was unsuccessful (Rios Panuco, Tuxpan, Nautla, Blanco and Balsas).

Tothill, J. D. 1946. The origin of the Sudan Gezira clay plain. Sudan Notes and Records 27:153 183.

The origin of the Gezira soils has been the subject of several hypotheses but remains unsettled. The distribution of the semi fossil molluscs Cleoptra bullimoides, Ampullaria wernei, Lanistes carinatus, Limicolaria flaunmata, provide evidence concerning water levels and climate during the formation of the soil. River bottom species, Melanoides tuberculata, Corbicula spp., and Unionidae are absent from the higher levels indicating absence of lacustrine conditions. These findings are correlated with data from archaeology, soil chemistry and geology, and a provisional table of contemporary events in Palestine, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda during the Pleistocene is given.

Tournou:er, R. 1866. Sur les terrains tertiares de la vallée supérieure de la Saône. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, Série 2, 23:769 804.

Corbicula fluminalis is reported from Tertiary strata at Bligny sous Beaume, Pouilly sur Saône, Auvillars, Pontailler prés d'Auxonne (Côte d'Or), France.

Tournou:er, R. 1877. Obervations sur les tertiaires de la Bresse. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, Série 3, 5:732.

Tournou:er, R. 1878. Description d'une nouvelle espece fossile de Corbicula des terrains teriaires recents de la Grece. Journal de Conchyliologie 26:81 87.

Corbicula hellenica sp. nov. is described (p. 8l) and figured (Pl. 2, fig. 2) from Pleistocene strata at Corinth, Kalamaki, Greece.

Trama, F. B. 1982. Occurrence of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea in the Raritan River, New Jersey. The Nautilus 96(1):6 8.

The mid Atlantic range of Corbicula fluminea (Müller) is extended to the Raritan River in central New Jersey. A successfully breeding population was found in the nontidal region near a water supply intake. These clams have also colonized far upstream into the South Branch of the Raritan River but not the North Branch. No reason for this difference is known. Living specimens were found downstream in the tidal portion of the river which is freshwater but polluted. There was no evidence of reproduction in this region of the river.

Tran, D. 1998. Influence of water oxygenation level on cadmium bioaccumulation-rate in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea. 8th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, Bordeaux, France, 14-18 April.

Tran, D., A. Boudou and J.-C. Massabuau. 2000. Mechanism for maintaining oxygen consumption under varying oxygenation levels in the freshwater clam Corbicula fluminea. Canadian Journal of Zoology/Revue Canadienne de Zoologie 78(11):2027-2036.

The basic adaptation mechanisms that allow the Asian freshwater clam Corbicula fluminea to maintain its oxygen (O₂) consumption constant under resting conditions when the partial pressure of O₂ (P_O2) in the water varies from 4 to 40 kPa were studied at plankton concentrations which were high enough that ventilation was not affected. Steady-state values for O₂ consumption, P_O2, and O₂ concentration in the arterial and venous blood, P_O2 in the expired water, and ventilatory and circulatory blood flow were determined after 24-h periods of exposure to selected water P_O2 values. The key adaptation after 1 day of acclimation was the maintenance of O₂ consumption, which was achieved exclusively by ventilatory adjustment, with no change in the oxygenation status of the internal milieu. Specifically, arterial P_O2 remained constant at 3 kPa and venous P_O2 at 2 kPa. Arterial and venous blood _{O sub(2)} concentrations and blood-flow rate also remained constant. The data are discussed in terms of feeding versus respiratory control of ventilation in filter-feeders in an environmental context. The agreement between the homeostasis strategy described here and previous results reported for the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea, crustaceans, and teleosts is emphasised.

Tran, D., A. Boudou and J.-C. Massabuau. 2001. How water oxygenation level influences cadmium accumulation pattern in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea: A laboratory and field study. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20(9):2073-2080.

The level of O₂ in water is highly variable in the aquatic environment and is a major ventilatory drive in all animals breathing water. Low O₂ partial pressure (PO₂) strongly stimulates ventilatory activity compared to air-equilibrated or O₂ -enriched water. The influence of ventilatory activity on the bioaccumulation rate of Cd was studied in the freshwater Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea for PO₂ ranging from 4 to 40 kPa (2-20 mg/L at 15^oC) during steady-state exposure to controlled concentrations of Cd of approximately 2 or 0.5 μg/L under both laboratory and field conditions. The concentration of Cd in the expired water and its apparent extraction coefficient (Ew_Cd) from the ventilated water were calculated. Results show that a low PO₂ strongly enhanced Cd bioaccumulation rate in the whole soft body and modified the distribution pattern and the relative burden in the organs. Whatever the water PO₂, values for the concentration of Cd in the expired water remained close to the Cd concentration in the inspired water and Ew_Cd varied from 2 to 12%. Because the field results conformed to the laboratory analysis, the suggestion is made that the influence of O₂ on bioaccumulation patterns of metals in water-breathers should be classified as of primary importance.

Tran, D., A. Boudou and J.-C. Massabuau. 2002. Relationship between feeding-induced ventilatory activity and bioaccumulation of dissolved and algal-bound cadmium in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 21(2):327-333.

The influence of feeding-induced ventilatory adaptation on cadmium accumulation patterns was analyzed in quiescent Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea studied in steady-state conditions at 15^oC and 25^oC and in air-equilibrated water. Ventilatory activity, algae inflow rate, amounts of inspired dissolved and algae-bound Cd, and whole-body and tissue-specific metal concentrations were studied during a 15-d exposure period at a low dissolved cadmium concentration of 2 μg/L and various algal concentrations of Scenedesmus subspicatus. Great care was taken not to externally stimulate animals. Four main results were obtained as regard to regulation of ventilatory activity and metal accumulation rate. First, at 25^oC, feeding purposes strongly stimulated ventilatory activity, while at 15^oC, it was independent of it except at 1 to 2 x 10⁵ algae/ml. Second, Cd accumulation rate increased at higher temperature. Third, accumulation rate exhibited a positive correlation with the ventilatory flow rate. Fourth, no correlation was observed with the quantity of ventilated algae-bound Cd but, rather, with the quantity of ventilated dissolved Cd. It is concluded that the physiology of the animals can be fundamental in affecting metal accumulation process.

Tran, D., P. Ciret, A. Ciutat, G. Durrieu and J. C. Massabuau. 2003. Estimation of potential and limits of bivalve closure response to detect contaminants: application to cadmium. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4):914-920.

Bivalve closure responses to detect contaminants have often been studied in ecotoxicology as an aquatic pollution biosensor. A new laboratory procedure is presented to estimate its potential and limits for various contaminants and animal susceptible to stress. The study was performed in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea and applied to cadmium. To take into account the rate of spontaneous closures, stress problems associated with fixation by a valve in common apparatus were integrated with the spontaneous rhythm associated with circadian activity to focus on conditions with the lowest probability of spontaneous closing. Moreover, an original system by impedance valvometry was developed, using light-weight impedance electrodes, to study free-ranging animals in low-stress conditions and a new analytical approach to describe valve closure behavior as a function of response time and concentration of contaminant. In C. fluminea, it was shown that cadmium concentrations above 50 μg/L can be detected within less than 1 h, concentrations down to 16 μg/L require 5 h of integration time, and values lower than 16 μg/L cannot be distinguished from background noise. The procedure improved by a factor of six the cadmium sensitivity threshold reported in the literature. Problems of field applications are discussed.

Tran, D., E. Fournier, G. Durrieu and J. Massabuau. 2003. Copper detection in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea: optimum valve closure response. Aquatic Toxicology 65(3):317-327.

When exposed to a contaminant, bivalves close their shell as a protective strategy. The aim of the present study was to estimate the maximum expected dissolved copper sensitivity in the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fluminea using a new approach to determine their potential and limit to detect contaminants. To take into account the rate of spontaneous closures, we integrated stress problems associated with fixation by a valve in usual valvometers and the spontaneous rhythm associated with nycthemeral activity, to optimize the response in conditions where the probability of spontaneous closing was lowest. Moreover, we used an original system with impedance valvometry, using lightweight impedance electrodes, to study free-ranging animals in low stress conditions combined with an analytical approach describing dose-response curves by logistic regression, with valve closure reaction as a function of response time and concentration of contaminant. In C. fluminea, we estimated that copper concentrations >4 mu g/l (95% confidence interval (CI95%), 2.3-8.8 μg/l) must be detected within 5h after Cu addition. Lower values could not be distinguished from background noise. The threshold values were 2.5 times higher than the values reported in the literature.

Tristram, H. B. 1884. Terrestrial and fluviatile Mollusca. The Survey of Western Palestine. IN: The Fauna and Flora of Palestine. The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund (London). pp. 178 204.

Troutner, T. K. 1996. Reproductive activity and feeding modes of the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea. Master of science Thesis, The Ohio State University. 67 pp.

Tryon, G. W. 1884. Structural and Systematic Conchology. (Philadelphia).

Corbicula (Veloritina) durkeei (Meek, 1869) and Corbicula (Leptesthes) fracta (Meek, 1870) are discussed.

Tsoi, S. C. M., S.-C. Lee, W.-L. Wu and B. Morton. 1991. Genetic variation in Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia: Corbiculoidea) from Hong Kong. Malacological Revie 24(1-2):25-34.

An electrophoretic analysis of allelic differences at 15 loci from 11 enzymes for Corbicula fluminea has been undertaken. The study of four populations of C. fluminea from two stream drainages in the New Territories of Hong Kong has revealed genetic variations in all populations. No fixed allelic differences were detected between white and purple colour morphs. Cluster analysis suggests that two populations from the same stream drainage are genetically similar as compared with individuals from different streams. However, the genetic distance between the two populations from the two streams (Lam Tsuen vs. Wo Hang) was extremely small. C. fluminea in Hong Kong represents a single population with an average heterozygosity of 0.1%.

Tsuda, M. 1945. Studies of the fauna in the shore region of Lake Biwa. V. Benthal fauna of the shore of Chomeiji Watasugasaki of Lake Biwa and its significance from fisheries viewpoint. Physiological and Ecological Contributions of the Otsu Hydrobiology Experiment Stations, Kyoto University 24:1 9. [Japanese]

This faunal study was begun by marking off a 1 square meter plot in a shallow area. The attached organisms from the surface of all the stones and pebbles within the plot were collected in a metal sieve and examined. The species of animals found included: Rhabdoceras japonicus, Goera hedyonurus yoshidae, Ephemera lineata, Gammarus nipponensis, Minobdella japonica, Hemiclepsis sp., Corbicula sandai, Semisulcospira libertina, Lymnaea japonica and a few other insects and molluscs. The predominance of molluscs is one of the characteristics of Lake Biwa as a whole. Presence of such running water forms as Goera sp., Economus sp., etc. is considered as due to the almost constant waves of the lake which play the same role as currents in streams.

Tsuda, M., I. Akapi and T. Watanabe. 1960. On the biotic index of water pollution based upon the species number of macroscopic animals. Japanese Journal of Ecology 10(5):198 201. [Japanese with English abstract]

A simplified method for reporting biological investigations made in connection with stream quality surveys was proposed by Beck and is called the Biotic Index (BI). The index is calculated using the formula BI = 2A + B, where A is the number of intolerant species and B is the number of tolerant. New restrictions on this calculation are proposed: (1) that sampling should be made from an area of 50 x 50 cm; (2) that sampling should be made from the stony bottom with a velocity of 50   100 cm/sec. Two examples are shown [that include data for Corbicula leana and Corbicula sandai] from the Kamogawa and Yodogawa rivers.

Tsuda, T., A. Takino, M. Kojima, H. Harada and K. Muraki. 1999. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of 4-nonylphenols and 4-tert-octylphenol in biological samples. Journal of Chromatography. B, Biomedical Sciences and Applications 723(1-2):273-279.

A simple and rapid method is described for the GC-MS determination of 4-nonylphenols (NOs) and 4-tert-octylphenol (OC) in biological samples. The NOs and OC in the sample are extracted with acetonitrile and the lipid in the sample extract is eliminated by partitioning between hexane and acetonitrile. After Florisil PR column clean-up, the sample extract is analyzed by GC-MS in the selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. Average recoveries in pale chub (fish) and Corbicula (shellfish) are 86.0 and 93.4% for NOs, and 95.8 and 96.4% for OC, respectively, spiked at the levels of 1.0 μg of NOs and 0.1 μg of OC per 5 g of fish and shellfish samples. The detection limits are 20 ng/g for NOs and 2 ng/g for OC.

Tsuji, T. and I. Sakamoto. 1971. Characteristics of changes to the clam beds on the western coast of Ise Bay, caused by red tide. Journal of Faculty of Fisheries Prefectural University of Mie 8(3):305 322. [Japanese with English summary]

A study was conducted to determine the characteristics of the damage caused to clam beds by a red tide which occurred in Ise Bay in 1970. In clam beds occurring in zones of low salinity were found Corbicula, Meretrix and Soletellina, while in those occurring in zones of higher salinity were found Acapharca, Scapharca, Fulvia and Protothaca. Tapes occurred in both zones. The damage to clam beds occurring in the low salinity estuarine zone and those occurring offshore was less than that to beds located in a higher salinity estuarine zone. This is considered to be due to the reducing water mass of the red tide being diluted by fresh river water in the low salinity zone and by seawater in the offshore zone. In the low salinity zone damage to Tapes was greater than to Meretrix. The characteristics of the movement of the red tide within Ise Bay are given. Measures necessary to improve the environment of Ise Bay for clam production are given.

Tsujii, T. 1960. Shell and pearl formation in Molluscs. Journal of Faculty of Fisheries Prefectural University of Mie 5:1 70.

The histology and histochemistry of pearl formation in several species of bivalves (including Corbicula japonica Prime) is reviewed.

Tsujimoto, M. and H. Koyangi. 1934. On the fatty substances of shell fish. I. Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry of Japan 37(2):81B 86B.

In the bivalves Tapes philippinarum, Corbicula leana, Cristaria plicata and Meretrix meretrix, the fatty substances amounted to about 0.7% of the soft tissues and were usually more than half phosphatides. The phosphatide free lipids contained unsaponifiable matter up to 45%; to fatty acids had high I values, and were rich in highly unsaturated acids. The unsaponifiable matter contained a peculiar sterol, probably a new compound, which melts at about 135 136^oC, is an isomer of cholesterol, forms an acetate of high melting point (highest = 138 139^oC), and gives a characteristic red coloration when a drop of H₂SO₄ is added to its acetic anhydride solution. Cholesterol also seemed to be present. The liquid parts of the unsaponifiable matter had high I values.

Tsuruta, Y., T. Ishikawa, S. Nishida, M. Narita and H. Fujiwara. 2002. Hydraulic study on reproductive condition of Corbicula japonica in Lake Ogawara. Doboku Gakkai Ronbunshu. 1/Journal of Structural Mechanics and Earthquake Engineering 705:175-187.

Tuan, T. L. 1984. The Immunobiology of the Asian Clam, Corbicula fluminea. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Oklahoma. 168 pp.

Corbicula fluminea was selected for the study of internal defense mechanisms of hemocoelic invertebrates. C. fluminea hemocytes, the primary effector cells involved in defense reactions, consisted of a heterogeneous cell population which could be divided into three groups: small hyaline hemocytes, vesicular hemocytes, and large granular hemocytes. All hemocytes were capable of recognizing and phagocytozing, in vitro, formalin fixed vertebrate red blood cells (RBC). This phagocytic response was dependent on a heat labile opsonin like component(s) present in clam plasma. In addition, hemocytes, as well as clam plasma, contained a cytolytic substance which was reactive against a variety of mammalian RBC targets. Similarities in the physico chemical and functional properties of the hemocyte and plasma lysins suggested that these were the same molecule and that hemocytes may represent an important source of circulating plasma lysin. Plasma alone was capable of agglutinating several species of fresh and formalized vertebrate RBCs.

Based on the in vitro studies, it has been shown that Corbicula fluminea is able to recognize and react against foreign particles through both cellular and humoral mechanisms. The functional relationship between cellular and humoral components has been demonstrated in the hemocyte phagocytosis study. Additionally, hemocytes represent a major source of the plasma lysin.

Tuan, T. L. and T. P. Yoshino. 1987. Role of divalent cations in plasma opsonin dependent and  independent erythrophagocytosis by hemocytes of the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 50:310 319.

The in vitro phagocytosis promoting properties of hemolymph from Corbicula fluminea are described. Hemocytes were capable of phagocytosing aldehyde fixed erythrocytes (RBCs) of seven vertebrate species with equal facility, but only in the presence of homologous clam plasma. The plasma factors mediating erythrophagocytosis were heat sensitive. Pretreatment (opsonizing) of target RBCs with plasma also resulted in enhancement of hemocyte particle uptake in the absence of plasma. Opsonin dependent phagocytosis required the presence of divalent cations, especially calcium, although not in free ionic form. Evidence suggests that the plasma opsonin may normally exist as a divalent cation macromolecular complex since opsonizing activity was retained after dialysis against Tris buffered saline (TBS), but was lost following TBS/EDTA or TBS/EGTA dialysis. An opsonin independent phagocytosis mechanisms was also identified in which C. fluminea hemocytes are able to ingest nonopsonized RBCs in the absence of homologous plasma. Extracellular calcium or magnesium in the incubation medium is needed for particle uptake, although the direct binding of free ions to the target RBC surface does not appear to be mediating enhanced phagocytosis. From present data, it was concluded that hemocyte recognition of aldehyde fixed RBCs can be accomplished by either of two mechanisms: (1) by the coating of cells with plasma factors capable of triggering the phagocytic process (opsonization) or (2) by a plasma opsonin  independent mechanism in which extracellular divalent cations (e.g. Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺) in the incubation buffer stimulate the uptake of nonopsonized RBCs. The factors regulating in vitro erythrophagocytosis by clam hemocytes are considered to be analogous to those involved in nonimmune opsonin dependent and  independent phagocytosis in mammalian macrophages.

Tuomey, M. and F. S. Holmes. 1858. Pliocene Fossils of South Carolina. xvi + 152 pp.

Corbicula densata Conrad, 1843 is reported near Petersburg, Virginia.

Turner, F. E. 1938. Stratigraphy and Mollusca of the Eocene of western Oregon. Special Papers of the Geological Society of America 10:1 130.

Turner, J. L. and D. W. Kelly, Editors. 1966. Ecological studies of the Sacramento San Joaquin Delta, Part II, Fishes of the Delta. California Fish and Game Department Fish Bulletin 136:1 168

Twenhofel, W. H. 1920. The Comanchean and Dakota strata of Kansas. American Journal of Science, 4th Series, 49:281 297.

Corbicula? subtrigonalis (Meek, 1870) is reported from the Cretaceous of Dakota.

Twenhofel, W. H. 1924. The geology and invertebrate paleontology of the Comanchean and "Dakota" formations of Kansas. Bulletin of the State Geological Survey of Kansas (Topeka). pp. 1 135.