Internationalization of the Curriculum: a remedy for International Students' Academic

A final paper submitted to Dr. Lenora Perry

Sherri Williams

Victoria, BC

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Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Internationalization of the Curriculum ………………………………………………………... 19

"Today…internationalization of the university means far more than inter-personal or even inter-institutional cooperation across borders. It is a necessary, vital, and deliberate transformation of how we teach and learn and it is essential... to the future of Canada. In a world characterized by challenges and opportunities of global proportions, universities are key agents of change."

Canadian universities have a long history of involvement in international education activities (James & Nef, 2002; Lemasson, 1999; Shute, 2002). However, the internationalization of higher education has become much more firmly entrenched within the Canadian post-secondary system over the past two decades (Knight, 1997, 2000a, 2000b). Although numerous definitions of the concept of internationalization exist, Knight (2003), a renowned expert in the field, defines the internationalization of higher education as "the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education" (p. 2).

The importance of valuing diversity within the teaching and learning functions of higher education is essential as post-secondary institutions engage in one of their many avenues of internationalization: the increased recruitment of international students to their campuses. In recent years, the recruitment of international students has become an important and highly competitive focus of post-secondary institutions in both Canada and around the world. If Canadian post-secondary institutions wish to remain competitive within the international education marketplace (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada [AUCC], 2007a; Savage, 2005) it is crucial that they understand the diverse needs of their international student clientele, and provide a learning environment that meets their special needs (Canadian Association of University Teachers, 2008; Cunningham, 1991; Reus, 2007; Vertesi, 1999). Taylor (2004), in his study of internationalization practices at four universities worldwide summed it up nicely when he stated, "a strategy for internationalization is much more far reaching and inclusive than is implied simply by the recruitment of international students. At the heart of the development process lies a fundamental reexamination of teaching provision to reflect the challenge of internationalization" (p. 157).

International students often encounter pedagogical and curricular adjustment difficulties due to teaching methods, styles, and expectations that may be different from those they are accustomed to in their native cultures (Andrade, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Crabtree & Sapp, 2004; Dalili, 1982; Durkin, 2008; Grey, 2002; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Zhai, 2002; Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping, & Todman, 2008). International students often perceive the content of the curriculum as exclusionary and cite concerns that instructors show a lack of interest in their prior knowledge (Arthur, 2004; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Robertson, Line, Jones, & Thomas, 2000). Part of the difficulties these students encounter may be due to the traditional teaching and learning environment within Western higher educational institutions that may not reflect the cultural backgrounds and diverse learning needs of the international student population (Adams, 1992; Guo & Jamal, 2007; Hayle, 2008; Joseph, 2008; Samuel & Burney, 2003; Schapper & Mayson, 2004; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). Lynch (1997) indicated that students from diverse cultures who are exposed to the traditional "Euro-centric, male-biased curriculum using narrow methods of instruction,…may feel isolated and alienated from the educational goal that they are pursuing" (p. 57).

Curricular and pedagogical change, or what is commonly referred to as the internationalization of the curriculum may be an effective means of providing an academic environment that supports the diverse cultural learning needs of international students. Bond (2006) defined this curricular transformation as "changing fundamentally what we teach and how we teach it" (p. 3). Leask (2001) suggested that, "internationalizing university curricula is a powerful and practical way of bridging the gap between rhetoric and practice to including and valuing the contribution of international students" (p. 100). Although the phrase internationalization of the curriculum can refer to such varied internationalization activities as study abroad programs, foreign language courses, interdisciplinary or area programs, or the provision of programs or courses with an international, intercultural, or comparative focus (Bremer & van der Wende, 1995), within this paper the intent of an internationalized curriculum will be on "introduc[ing] an international, intercultural or global dimension into course content and materials and into teaching and learning methods" (AUCC, 2007b, ¶ 1). The focus, therefore, is not only on the subject matter of the curriculum, but also on the pedagogical implications of teaching and learning approaches that will promote the inclusion of international students (Adams, 1992; Bond, 2006; De Vita & Case, 2003; Leask, 2001; Marchesani & Adams, 1992; Maidstone, 1995; McKellin, 1998; McLoughlin, 2001).

This paper will examine whether an internationalized curriculum may be a means of creating a more pluralistic or culturally inclusive classroom environment for international students that could embrace the diversity required for their success. It will present an overview of the academic adjustment difficulties and learning needs of international students in higher education and propose a link between these students' unique needs and the necessity of curriculum and pedagogical reform. The internationalization of the curriculum will be presented as a potential remedy for alleviating the academic difficulties international students, from non-Western backgrounds, may face as a result of the traditional Euro-centric or Western biased curriculum and traditional pedagogical practices commonly found in Western post-secondary institutions. Support for and challenges inherent in internationalizing the curriculum will be examined along with the roles of the major stakeholders involved. A critical review of the literature in the field will attempt to answer the following research questions:

1. Does the Western, Euro-centric bias evident in the curriculum and pedagogical practices of Western higher education impede the academic success of international students? 

2. If so, how can an internationalized curriculum better support the learning needs of this student population?

3. What constitutes an internationalized curriculum and how can it be implemented?

Rationale for Internationalizing the Curriculum

Numerous researchers emphasize the centrality of the curriculum and the internationalization of the curriculum and teaching and learning processes as critical elements of internationalization (Bond, 2003a; Bond, Qian, & Huang, 2003; Green & Olson, 2003; Knight, 1994, 1997, 2000a; Lemasson, 2002; Paige, 2003; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). Knight (1994) described the curriculum as "the backbone of the internationalization process" (Knight, 1994, p. 6). Other researchers concur, emphasizing the importance of an internationalized curriculum in providing a student-centered learning experience for all students and in preparing students to be successful in today's increasingly interdependent global society (Bonfiglio, 1999; Leask, 2001; Lemasson, 2002; Schuerholz-Lehr, 2007; Schuerholz-Lehr, Caws, van Gyn, & Preece, 2007).

Education and the curriculum play a key role in shaping students' values (Khalideen, 2006). Because curriculum is typically reflective of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of a particular culture and an institution, forcing students to assimilate to an unfamiliar learning culture is unlikely to be successful and may negatively impact on their sense of identity (Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Freedman, 1998; Kennedy, 1995; Khalideen, 2006; Mestenhauser, 2002b). The ethnocentric values underlying the curriculum and pedagogy in Western post-secondary institutions "keeps foreign students in their ghettos, makes it difficult for them to deal with our academic ethnocentrism and with abstracting theoretical principles from culture-bound instruction" (Mestenhauser, 2002b, p. 23). The combination of a didactic lecture format with tutorials and seminars that emphasize the discussion, critical thinking, and active learning inherent in Western post-secondary institutions "privilege[s] western forms of knowledge" (Joseph, 2008, p. 34) and disregards the diverse ways of knowing of international students. An optimal learning environment reflects students' "cultures, experiences, and perspectives" (Banks, 2004, p. 243). Because the manner in which people think, reason, and view knowledge is culturally and socially determined (Mestenhauser, 2002a; Peelo & Luxon, 2007), international students from diverse cultural backgrounds may have difficulty balancing the expectations of the traditional Western curricular perspective and pedagogical strategies with their own culturally based learning expectations and values.

Students' preferred learning styles and strategies are greatly determined by their social and cultural backgrounds (Harris, 1995; Mestenhauser, 2002a; Myles, Qian, & Cheng, 2002; Peelo & Luxon, 2007); however, faculty members' ethnocentric values and cultural framework also impact on how they judge students' learning styles and performance (Jin & Cortazzi, 1997; Miles et al., 2002; Valiente, 2008). Joseph (2008), a former international post-graduate student in Australia, suggested that the focus on "critical thinking and analysis, notions of plagiarism and ethics of research, language nuances and academic traditions as practiced within…western post-industrial countries are concepts located within a western ideology of academe" (p. 33). Valiente (2008) questioned the attitude of superiority embraced by Western faculty towards their preferred styles of learning and teaching and the Western assumption that international students use "the 'wrong' style of learning" (p. 73). McLoughlin (2001) and Biggs (2003) also cautioned against viewing an inclusive approach to learning and teaching from the 'deficit model' perspective. The deficit view posits that, "international students (students of diverse language, race and ethnic backgrounds) can be brought up to a 'normal' standard by redressing their 'deficits'" (McLoughlin, 2001, p. 12). Instead, these authors recommended that an inclusive learning and teaching environment should recognize, value, and accommodate students' cultural differences and worldviews. These researchers remind us of the importance of assessing our ethnocentric attitudes towards learning and of being sensitive to the diverse learning needs of students. Furthermore, both students and faculty should engage in a critical examination of their cultural differences in order to better understand each other's academic cultures, cultures of learning, and cultures of communication (Cortazi & Jin, 1997; Grey, 2002).

In comparing the educational outcomes of domestic and international students at four Canadian universities, Grayson (2006) concluded that, "the educational outcomes of international students are lower than those of domestic students" (p. 15). Despite the fact that the international students in Grayson's study entered university with equivalent or slightly higher grades than their domestic counterparts, their grade point averages and accumulated credits after their first year of studies were lower than those of domestic students. This underlines the importance of academic institutions providing support for international students and of committing "resources to deal with problems such as low levels of English linguistic capital" (Grayson, 2006, p. 26). One might also add the importance of institutions recognizing that international students' cultural backgrounds may demand a modification in curriculum and pedagogy to better meet the academic learning needs of these students.
Academic Adjustment Difficulties of International Students

International students who choose to study in a foreign environment face a host of cross-cultural adjustment difficulties as part of their transition experience. Carroll and Appleton (2007) aptly referred to the academic adjustment problems facing transitioning students as "academic 'culture shock'" (p. 72). Regardless of their cultural or linguistic background, all new students transitioning into higher education must learn to navigate and adjust to a new educational system and to the individual disciplines (Carroll & Appleton, 2007; Dalili, 1982; Ellis, Sawyer, Gill, Medlin, & Wilson, 1992; Mullins, Quintrell, & Hancock, 1995; Terenzini et al., 1994), each of which "has its own culture" (Ellis et al., 1992, p. 67). However, international students often face a myriad of cross-cultural adjustment problems that domestic students from Western society do not typically encounter (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Church, 1982; Pavel, 2006). As Peelo and Luxon (2007) emphasize, "learning means different things to different groups" (p. 68). It is important to recognize that international students cannot be considered a homogeneous group (Bond 2003a; Burns, 1991; Cunningham, 1991; Kuhlman, 1992; Mestenhauser, 2002b); therefore, international students, pending their personal and cultural background, experience varying types and levels of adjustment problems. Andrade (2006) noted that, "students from families, communities, and schools with widely different norms and behaviors from those in the college environment may have difficulty adjusting to the new environment" (p. 61). International students' academic adjustment difficulties can be exacerbated by variables such as their English language competency, difficulties with unfamiliar pedagogical styles and expectations for learning, and curricular content which does not recognize their unique cultural experiences and worldviews.

International students whose first language differs from that of the host country cite linguistic and communication difficulties as foremost amongst their academic challenges (Chapman Wadsworth, Hecht, & Jung, 2008; Dalili, 1982; Ellis et al., 2005; Galloway & Jenkins, 2005; Kennedy, 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987; Zhai, 2002; Zhang & Brunton, 2007). Lack of familiarity with the linguistic and culturally determined communication norms of the new academic environment can be very stressful for international students (Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008). A lack of confidence in their second language competency may inhibit international students from actively participating in group work, class discussions, and presentations (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Hellstén & Prescott, 2004). In addition, difficulties in comprehending the idiomatic or colloquial language and cultural references utilized by their classmates and instructors are common complaints of international students (Ellis et al., 2005; Grey, 2002; Lacina, 2002; Robertson et al., 2000). International students often encounter difficulties comprehending lectures and class discussions due to a speaker's rate of speech (Chen, 1996; Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Mullins et al., 1995; Poyrazli & Graham, 2007; Robertson et al., 2000; Zhai, 2002). However, some international students in Hellstén and Prescott's (2004) study felt that if lecturers slowed their rate of speech, it reduced the challenge for them and prevented them from advancing their English skills. One important caution with the results of Hellstén and Prescott's (2004) study, however, is the lack of reliability due to sampling bias. Other researchers have stressed the levels of fatigue and anxiety international students experience as a result of the increased time they require to take notes, read academic texts, and complete written assignments in their second language (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Chen, 1996; Ellis et al., 2005; Grey, 2002; Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Mullins et al., 1995; Pedersen, 1991).

Faculty must become cognizant of these linguistic difficulties faced by international students when planning and delivering their courses. For example, they may wish to avoid using excessive amounts of idiomatic or casual language and should clearly explain any culturally biased references they may use. As a faculty participant in Schuerholz-Lehr et al.'s (2007) study indicated, "in an international setting, it is critical to clarify/define the terms you are using, as the common ground that we often assume, may not exist, and meaning is grounded in cultural context" (p. 80). However, an international student in Chen's (1996) study stressed that faculty must also avoid equating international students' linguistic difficulties with levels of intelligence. This student stated that faculty members "should be patient and listen to them, and try to share and exchange opinions" (p. 10).

Pedagogy and Expectations for Learning

Pedagogical styles and expectations for learning approaches that differ from those to which the international students are accustomed in their own cultures may also be a source of difficulty (Andrade, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Crabtree & Sapp, 2004; Dalili, 1982; Durkin, 2008; Grey, 2002; Polyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Zhai, 2002; Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping, & Todman, 2008). Despite the diversity of students in Canadian post-secondary institutions today, the "traditional Anglo-American lecture-and-discussion format" (Vertesi, 1999) prevails. In addition, participation in small group tutorial or seminar sessions and the interactive teaching and learning process required within many Western institutions is an unfamiliar and challenging concept to many international students (Mullins et al., 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987). Studies have indicated conflicting results vis-à-vis international students' expectations of learning difficulties in the foreign environment. An early study of international students in Australia indicated that the majority of the students did not anticipate any problems adapting to the foreign educational system (Samuelowicz, 1987). However, Burns' (1991) study of first-year South East Asian students' indicated that 79% of the students felt unprepared for university level study in the foreign environment. Although there are concerns with Samuelowicz's (1987) study, including questions about the sampling method used, its limited literature review, and the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the presentation of thick descriptions from international students within the study makes reference to the results worthy of consideration.

International students from collectivist Asian cultures in particular may be accustomed to and more at ease with the lecture method of instruction (Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008; Harris, 1995); however, independent, self-directed learning, actively engaging in class discussions, asking questions in class, and critical and analytical thinking may be skills they are not comfortable with and have not developed in their own academic cultures (Burns, 1991; Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008; Harris, 1995; Robertson et al., 2000; Samuelowicz, 1987). The need to adapt to these new required styles of learning may prove particularly onerous for international students whose cultural backgrounds emphasize passive learning and respect or deference for authority, and would not tolerate challenging, criticizing, or questioning the instructor (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Durkin, 2008; Hellstén & Prescott, 2004; Samuelowicz, 1987). Students from some cultures may have difficulties not only asking questions, but also understanding questions, knowing how to ask questions, and knowing whom to approach when they experience difficulties in class (Ellis et al., 2005).

Other studies indicate that international students from particular cultures may experience "difficulty conducting research" (Robertson et al., 2000, p. 93) and understanding the academic writing requirements of Western cultures including the emphasis on referencing and avoiding plagiarism (Burns, 1991; Durkin, 2008). Students in Durkin's (2008) study felt constricted by the inability to express their own thoughts and opinions within their research. Burns (1991) indicated that students from Asian cultures, who have been taught to employ a circular, holistic argument, often encounter difficulties with academic writing expectations in Western institutions. A typical Western approach values the comparison, discussion, and evaluation of numerous arguments found in the research and presentation of the findings in a logical and linear sequence.

Assessment mechanisms in Western post-secondary institutions may also be problematic and discriminate against the preferred learning styles of some international students (Burns, 1991; Harris, 1995; Mullins et al., 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987). Burns (1991) suggested that, "no assessment instrument is culturally neutral" (p. 76). Institutions need to develop diverse assessment mechanisms to better support their international students (Harris, 1995; Mullin et al., 1995; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006).

Curricular Concerns

Studies have also indicated that some international students take issue with the cultural bias or "monocultural focus" (Samuel & Burney, 2003, p. 95) evident in Western curricula and the lack of interest that some instructors show towards their prior knowledge (Arthur, 2004; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Miles et al., 2002; Robertson et al., 2000). International students in three studies (Chen, 2006b; Grey, 2002; Samuel & Burney, 2003) felt excluded and marginalized in their classes by what they perceived to be the "Euro-centric emphasis with a penchant towards Anglo-Saxon assumptions and premises" (Samuel & Burney, 2003, p. 103). Many students cited the content of their courses, which they believed to be fundamentally Canadian or North American and the examples and texts utilized in their classes as problematic (Chen, 2006; Samuel & Burney, 2003). However, some students in the humanities, social science, science and engineering fields did not react negatively to the content of their courses because they had chosen to come to Canada to acquire Western knowledge (Chen, 2006b).

Despite this powerful evidence of the problems international students encounter with the curricular and pedagogical practices inherent in most Western post-secondary institutions, studies indicate that faculty members neglect to consider the social, cultural, and academic problems that many international students experience (Bond et al., 2003; Bowry, 2002; Myles et al., 2002; Vertesi, 1999). In light of this research, the need for a more culturally inclusive academic environment and curriculum, which considers these students' unique needs, is readily apparent.