Jacquelyn Jane Taylor Baumberg

Sudak, Republic of Crimea (Russian Federation)

1. 
   The early years of the Ballets Russes
   

1. 
   Russian ballet in the late 19^th century
   

However, by the early 20^th century, Russian artists were ready for new creative innovations in music and ballet. The new generation included such composers as Stravinsky and such artistic impresarios as Sergei Diaghilev.

2. 
   Diaghilev’s early career in St. Petersburg
   

During his upbringing, Diaghilev had also been well versed in other arts, and he decided, instead of going into the Civil Service, to follow his artistic interests and focus on writing about art from an innovative perspective. He joined a circle of artists in creating a soon-to-be-influential publication, Mir Iskusstva (The World of Art).⁴ He himself had a genius for finding and promoting talent, and great gifts for detail and organisation. During his St. Petersburg years, he organised sixteen exhibitions of painting, including one of four thousand Russian portrait painters.⁵

The artistic circle in St. Petersburg in which Diaghilev was active included Alexandre Benois and Leon Bakst, and it was Benois who awakened his interests in ballet by introducing the choreographer Michel Fokine into the group. Diaghilev soon became involved with the Mariinsky Theatre, handling editorial projects for the imperial venue as well as overseeing a performance of the Imperial Ballet.⁶

Diaghilev in St. Petersburg was influenced by the new artistic ideal of the ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’. Like the German operatic composer Richard Wagner, he dreamed of the creation of “a total work of art in which décor, costumes, music and expression were one harmonious whole”.⁷ Diaghilev hoped to reinvigorate Russian culture in this way and bring it to the West, something which he, in fact, eventually did. But at the time his creative ideas were too revolutionary for the conservatism of Russian theatres. .

3. 
   The impresario comes to Paris
   

Accordingly, Diaghilev arranged to open the first Russian ballet season in Paris in 1909, initially using the name “Saison Russe” for the presentations of the travelling company which he brought with him from St. Petersburg. Diaghilev’s ballet was an overnight success in the French capital. Stale ideas about ballet were overturned and it again became an important art form in France, capturing the attention of critics and public alike.⁹

From the start, music by Russian composers, often exotic by French standards, dominated the programmes of the Ballets Russes. The first season's repertory in Paris chiefly featured adaptations of operatic and orchestral works by Russian composers, mostly choreographed by Michel Fokine. These included Le Pavillon d'Armide (music by Tcherepnin), the Polovtsian Dances from the epic historical opera Prince Igor (music by Borodin), and Cléopâtre (music by Arensky). Other works on the programme were a scene from Mussorgsky’s opera Boris Godunov, and the ballets Ivan the Terrible and Ruslan and Ludmilla. For more traditional tastes there was Les Sylphides (music by Chopin). Diaghilev’s company followed up in 1910 with another Russian hit, a brilliant and exotic ballet adaptation of Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, based on Arabic tales from the Thousand and One Nights.¹⁰

Diaghilev had turned to his artistic friends in the St. Petersburg group to design his ballets for Paris, creating wonderful scenic colour combinations that no-one had ever seen before. The casts, noted for their high technical standards of classical training at the Imperial schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, included legendary dancers such as Vaslav Nijinsky, Tamara Karsavina, Anna Pavlova and Adolf Bolm. As for the choreography, Michel Fokine created exotic and thrilling one-act ballets, in which sometimes primitive new ways of moving were choreographed, and, after decades of being in the background, the male dancer was restored to the forefront. The corps de ballet also, instead of being simply a decorative background, became an integral part of the ballet’s story. Most of all, Fokine’s ballet demonstrated that dance could be deeply expressive in mood and emotion, and that the time and place of the subject should be reflected in the type of movement, music and design used to express it. Diaghilev himself supervised every detail of the productions: he managed the lighting, inspired choreography, design, composition and dancing, found patrons and funding, organised the tours and ran the touring company, which had as yet no permanent base.¹¹

4. 
   The great commissions of 1910-1913 and the revolution of French ballet
   

In 1912 two successful homegrown ballets on classical themes were also created for the fourth Ballets Russes season in Paris, to the music of contemporary French composers. These were a ballet version of Debussy’s 1894 orchestral prelude, L’après-midi d’un faune, and Ravel’s original ballet Daphnis and Chloe.

Then in 1913 came a third new Stravinsky work. Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring) whose choreographer was not Fokine but Vaslav Nijinsky. Its primitivism of costume and movement, its theme of pagan human sacrifice, and its many novel and jarring features of tonality, dissonance and rhythm caused a near riot in the Paris audience. But they also marked a revolution in French ballet, which henceforward would interact with modern art and modern music in new and exciting ways.¹²

5. 
   The Ballets Russes on tour
   

The Ballets Russes did not formally disband during the war, but many of its members and associates returned to their homelands or sought neutral territory. After a sixteen-month hiatus Diaghilev did manage to stage performances at Christmas 1915 in Switzerland and Paris, before seeking out new venues in neutral or safer countries. Over the next two years the Ballets Russes toured repeatedly in Spain, Portugal, Italy, North and South America, making only a brief 1917 appearance in endangered Paris. Then in autumn 1918 the company returned to London for the first time since the outbreak of the war, for a triumphant, sixteen-month English season, including a tour to Manchester. The Ballets Russes would only return from England to Paris at Christmas 1919.

An annual pattern of Ballets Russes engagements then began to emerge which would last with some exceptions throughout the 1920s: Paris at Christmas, then Monte Carlo for the winter, then Paris in the spring and London for between two and six months, with brief tours elsewhere in Western Europe in between. The company never returned to America and never visited Soviet Russia, but it toured outside London in the English provinces (1920, 1928) and even in Scotland (1928). The great impresario died in August 1929 after his final Paris and London seasons, and his Ballets Russes soon broke up.

From this survey of the itineraries of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes a surprising fact emerges. Although its spiritual home remained Paris, after its first years the company performed far more often away from the French capital than in it. In particular, it was much more often in London and, in its later years, in Monte Carlo. Because of the frequency and greater duration of its London seasons, it is fair to say that Diaghilev’s company was as much an English as a French artistic institution, and was the leading ballet company in England right down to 1929.

2. 
   The Ballets Russes in England, 1911-1929
   

1. 
   Review of the literature and museum exhibitions on Diaghilev in England
   

There have been several major exhibitions and associated catalogues about Diaghilev in the United Kingdom, beginning with the Edinburgh Festival exhibition of 1954, curated by Richard Buckle. Buckle himself also wrote a book on the impresario’s career. A quarter of a century later, David Chadd and John Gage organised an exhibition on The Diaghilev Ballet in England in connection with the Norwich Festival. This exhibition ran consecutively at the University of East Anglia in Norwich and the Fine Arts Society in London between 11^th October 1979 and 11^th January 1980. In 1996, there was an exhibition at the Barbican Art Gallery in London on Diaghilev: Creator of the Ballets Russes; the exhibition catalogue included more than a hundred pages of articles by authorities on the impresario and his work as well as a detailed chonology. Finally, Jane Pritchard and Geoffrey Marsh curated an exhibition in honour of the centenary of the inaugural 1911 Diaghilev season in London, at the Victoria and Albert Museum from 25^th September 2010 to 11^th January 2011. The accompanying book, Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929, was not so much an exhibition catalogue as a richly illustrated collection of articles.

2. 
   The Coronation season of 1911 in England: Fokine reigns
   

In 1911, the ordinary British public already knew something of Russian ballet. Three of Diaghilev’s early principal dancers, Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina and Adolf Bolm, together with a number of other Russian dancers, had been seen, not by elite theatre-goers, but by London music-hall audiences. In fact, it had been as part of a music-hall programme at the London Coliseum that Diaghilev had first thought of introducing his company to England, having been informed by Pavlova in 1909 “that the London public was only prepared to accept ballet as a half-hour divertissement in a variety programme, and that the high price of London theatre tickets would make it impossible to match there Diaghilev’s great success in Paris”.¹⁶ Pavlova’s own London programmes at the Palace Theatre consisted of such divertissements, and George Calderon of The Times contrasted them unfavourably with Diaghilev’s London production of 21^st June 1911:

How much the work of a ballet-master suffers from being given piece-meal may be seen by comparing the effect of the detached ‘turns’ of Pavlova and her company at the Palace Theatre before an irrelevant purely ‘decorative’ back-cloth, with the effect of Carnaval in its entirety at Covent Garden. Carnaval is an exquisitely delicate artistic whole [.…] ; and not a detail of it could be spared; least of all the [decor] which make one alert from the beginning for the airy mockery of the whole intention.¹⁷

The “artistic whole” came about also as a result of the cosmopolitan nature of Diaghilev’s company, an element stressed by one of the earliest English critics, Christopher St. John. He pointed out that “The Russian Ballet has transformed itself in a little over a decade because its guiding minds have been more than national”, and that in England, “the Russian dancers have perhaps been acclaimed with more whole-hearted fervour than elsewhere, because before their coming the land was barren”.¹⁸

Writing to The Times during the last prewar London season, Fokine outlined the principles of the new Russian ballet as being neither ‘classical’ nor ‘modern’, though it drew on elements of both. He explained that “Dancing and mimetic gesture have no meaning unless they serve as an expression of its dramatic action, and they must not be used as mere divertissement or entertainment, having no connection with the scheme of the whole ballet.”¹⁹ He went on to insist on the connection of ballet with the other arts:

The new ballet, refusing to be the slave either of music or of scenic decoration, and recognising the alliance of the arts only on the condition of complete equality, allows perfect freedom both to the scenic artist and to the musician. In contra-distinction to the older ballet it does not demand ‘ballet music’ of the composer as an accompaniment to dancing: it accepts music of every kind, provided only that it is good and expressive. It does not demand of the scenic artist that he should array the ballerinas in short skirts and pink slippers. It does not impose any specific ‘ballet’ conditions on the composer or the decorative artist, but gives complete liberty to their creative powers.²⁰

Diaghilev was particularly intent on fostering the special appeal of the new ballet to artists, which Fokine had underlined. An English dancer, Lydia Sokolova,²¹ who began dancing with the Diaghilev company in 1913, recalled that he would allow English artists to watch his company rehearsing. One such artist visitor of a more traditional bent, Laura Knight, wrote that these early seasons gave her “a feeling of being born again into a new and glamorous world, with complete satisfaction for every aesthetic sense”.²² Many society portrait painters enthusiastically approached the principal dancers of the company, but the Russian dancers, and in particular Nijinsky, appealed also to avant-garde English artists like Wyndham Lewis, who used ballet themes to bring dynamism to their art.

In June 1911 two contrasting ballets from the company’s new French repertory had their English premieres at Covent Garden. One was Le Carnaval, to the music of German Romantic composer Robert Schumann, with choreogaphy by Michel Fokine and set and costumes by Léon Bakst. It presented “the loves and flirtations of the Commedia dell’Arte characters, Pierrot and Papillon, Harlequin and Columbine and their friends”.²³ The other was quite different and very Russian in character: the loud, savage and colourful Polovtsian Dances with chorus from Act II of Borodin’s opera Prince Igor, again choreographed by Fokine, but with scenery and costumes by Nicholas Roerich. The Polovtsian Dances were very popular with English audiences and played to packed houses in every English season of the Ballets Russes until 1929.

Then in July London audiences got to see the ballet Scheherezade, choreographed by Fokine the previous year to the music of Rimsky-Korsakov’s symphonic poem of the same name. In the ballet version of Scheherezade, in the absence of the oriental king Shah Ryar his wives give themselves up to an orgy of pleasure with the male slaves, his favourite wife, Zobeida, with her Golden Slave (danced by Nijinsky). They are betrayed to the king and put to death. The extraordinarily rich and colourful sets and costumes designed for this ballet by Bakst made oriental fashion all the rage, and as the exhibition catalogues note, London shops took up Eastern styles and colours in fabrics, clothing, and home furnishings.

3. 
   The London season of 1913: the Nijinsky revolution comes to ballet in England
   

I could compose graceful ballets of my own if I wanted to [but] I detest ‘nightingale and rose’ poetry: my own inclinations are primitive …There have been schools of painting and sculpture that went on getting suaver and suaver until there was no expression but only banality left: then there has always come a revolt. Perhaps something like this has happened in dancing.²⁵

It was in the spirit of this final comment that thoughtful English critics analysed the contribution made by Nijinsky’s ballets. Raymond Drey, writing in 1914, suggested a relationship between Nijinsky’s new choreography and the new abstract techniques of musical composition:

Jeux and Le Sacre du Printemps broke new ground both in intention and in method. […] The imagination was arrested […] by […] an intensification of related forms in movement. […] Each gesture and each group played an allotted part in a set geometrical design. In movement these designs melted into one another in a series of permutations, just as natural movement is a rhythmic agglomeration of separate static poses. The rhythms of these ballets were not natural rhythms, however. The physical adaptability of the trained ballet dancer enabled Nijinsky to use the human body to realise arbitrary conceptions of movement, to devise a scale of gesture just as abstract as a scale of musical notes.²⁶

Drey also suggested a link with modern non-representational painting like that of Pablo Picasso, who would soon become an artistic collaborator of Diaghilev.

During 1913, three new French ballets received their first English performances by Diaghilev’s company. The music for two of them, L’Après-midi d’un faune and Jeux, was by Claude Debussy. The seductive L’Après-midi d’un faune, composed by Debussy as an orchestral work in 1894, had been premiered in Paris as a ballet in 1912, and was the more important in its English impact, whereas Jeux, a newer and more abstract work, failed to please the English critics and audiences.

L’Après-midi d’un faune was based on a poem by Mallarmé, with choreography by Nijinsky, scenery and costumes by Léon Bakst. In the ballet the Faun, a simple creature of Greek myth, wakes in the forest, his brain teased by images of nymphs. He cannot tell if they are dreams or reality as they come and go, and eventually falls asleep again in the warm sunshine. The idea, developed by Nijinsky and his sister Bronislava Nijinska, was to re-create in ballet “the visual effect of a Greek frieze” on vases of the 5^th century before Christ. “The movement was entirely in walking and running, with only one leap. The predominant effect was given by a stress on profile poses with limbs held angularly”.²⁷ It was ancient museum art set into motion.

The last major new Diaghilev production to be presented in London in 1913, on 11th July, was The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du printemps), with music by Igor Stravinsky, choreography by Nijinsky, set and costumes by Roerich. According to Jean Cocteau the scenario of The Rite of Spring unfolds in two tableaux.

Stravinsky’s score was full of unprecedented difficulties for the dancers – rhythmic and metrical complexities, irregular phrase-lengths, harmonies unrelated to melody. Added to this, they were also unfamiliar with Nijinsky’s choreographic expectations, and had problems understanding his verbal explanations.²⁹.

The near riot which accompanied the première in Paris on 29 May 1913 has frequently been described. The presentation in London six weeks later was more sober. The English had a curiosity about Russia and the Russians, seeing them as a “semi-Asiatic and semi-European people” who were free of their own [Victorian] “disease of super-civilisation”. However, English audiences were somewhat taken aback by this ballet, in which it seemed that the Russians might have “overstepped the mark of what could be regarded as acceptably uncivilised”.³⁰ Many English critics were puzzled by The Rite of Spring. One must remember that it took another fifty years of performance before it was accepted as a masterpiece. England provided part of the impetus towards its acceptance, when in 1921 Eugène Goossens gave its first English concert performance.

4. 
   The triumphant English seasons of 1918 to 1929: from London to the provinces
   
   1. 
      Postwar in London – new music, new art, a revitalised Ballets Russes
      

Ernest Ansermet, the conductor, recalls in particular the exceptional audiences of the Ballets Russes’ first postwar English season. In a continuous run of sixteen months, Diaghilev’s capacity audiences were drawn from more than just English society, the London elite and the intellectuals of Oxford and Cambridge. He even reached out from the capital to the provinces with a tour of ten days in Manchester in April 1919.

2. 
   London 1919: Two important world premieres
   

Another Diaghilev ballet which had a triumphant world premiere in London in 1919 was Le Tricorne (The Three Cornered Hat), with music by Spanish composer Manuel de Falla. It too was produced by Massine. The curtain, scenery and costumes were designed by the artist Pablo Picasso, and executed by Vladimir and Elizabeth Polunin, recent Russian émigrés to England who had already worked on the sets for La Boutique Fantasque.

Diaghilev and Massine, while in Madrid in 1915, had been taken by de Falla to see a play for which he had written the music, a stage adaptation of Pedro Antonio de Alarcon’s 1874 novel El Sombrero de Tres Picos. De Falla had very much captured the spirit of Spanish folk-music and the rhythms of its dances, and Diaghilev and Massine were so attracted by his musical setting that they immediately conceived a ballet for the story. Massine, having studied flamenco dancing, was especially taken by the idea of using the techniques of traditional Spanish dancers in his choreography for the ballet.³⁵

In the ballet’s scenario, an 18^th century Spanish miller and his wife lead peaceful and happy lives until the Corregidor, the governor of the province, arrives. The Corregidor, although himself married, notices the charm of the miller’s wife and attempts to seduce her. Rebuffed by the miller, he vows revenge. Suddenly the police arrive and arrest the miller. As evening approaches, the miller’s wife, left alone, is very anxious, especially as she notices the Corregidor trying to enter her house. He falls into the mill stream. The miller’s wife, frightened, runs for help. Meanwhile, the Corregidor pulls himself out of the water and goes into the mill, removes his wet clothes and hangs them up to dry while he lies down. The miller returns and is furious; he puts on the Corregidor’s clothes, writes a taunting message on the wall and runs off, leaving his own clothes behind. The Corregidor puts on the miller’s clothes in order to pursue him, but the villagers recognise him, understand what has happened and play tricks to humiliate him. The ballet ends with a big orchestral “jota” in the village square, enjoyed by everyone but the disgraced governor.³⁶

Picasso had created the set design for the Spanish village square, with distant mountains glimpsed through an archway, during his period with the company in London. The collaboration of Picasso with the Polunins was very fruitful, but the artist himself painted the drop curtain, which is now in the United States.³⁷

Between its infectious music, choreography, and colourful set and costumes, Le Tricorne was another instant success for Diaghilev, and there were few negative criticisms. Interestingly, it was followed in London by a strong vogue for Spanish dancing.³⁸

3. 
   Diaghilev and the conservative tone of ballet in England in the 1920s
   

The public enthusiasm for Russian ballet presentations certainly continued in England throughout the 1920s,³⁹ but the Diaghilev company’s English repertory became more conservative, in the sense that it relied on a mixture of the tried and true with one or two new works that had already recently been premiered in Paris or Monte Carlo. It was not that the entrepreneur of the Ballets Russes had lost his flair for innovation in England, but that he was looking for box-office success there.

For example, after a Paris season of only two weeks in May 1921, which had nonetheless included two new ballets, Diaghilev mounted a more conventional two-month summer season of mixed and tested programmes at the Princes Theatre in London. Then after a three-month break the impresario brought the Ballets Russes back to the Alhambra Theatre in November for an unprecedented three-months’ run of 115 straight performances of Tchaikovsky's ballet The Sleeping Beauty (retitled The Sleeping Princess), intending to capitalise on the strong London Christmas entertainment market. The sets and costumes were magnificent and the production was well received by the public, but unfortunately it was too big, ran too long and was a financial disaster. The ever-enterprising Diaghilev reused the sets and costumes in Paris the following spring in a shortened version entitled Aurora’s Wedding, which became a staple of the Ballets Russes repertory, regularly performed in England.⁴⁰

But the major new works which were still being premiered by the Ballets Russes in Paris were not guaranteed success when they later came to London. Stravinsky’s Les Noces is a very good example. This radical new interpretation in dance of the traditional Russian peasant wedding ceremony had been well received at its Paris premiere in 1923 despite its musical demands on the audience. One critic, Émile Vuillermoz, even noted the beauty of the work’s harsh impersonality as captured by Stravinsky’s “metallic” orchestration. He praised the “ill-treated pianos, the hallucinating cry of the castanets whipped at every blow, the rippling of the xylophone, and the muffled detonations of kettledrums” all of which engulfed “the melodies and the cries of the singers with a rhythmic atmosphere that is marvelously exact and sharp.”⁴¹

As for Bronislava Nijinska’s severe choreography in Les Noces, it was admired as innovative because it stripped away the individuality of the dancer, displaying the actors on a predetermined path. Nijinska emphasised bodily movement and its dynamic quality, rather than static points of pose and position. Her choreography was full of symbolism, with resignation and even serenity in the dance movements as the women huddled together and repeatedly struck the floor with their pointe shoes as if to express their struggle. Gestures moved downwards towards the earth instead of symbolizing the freedom of stylized leaps in conventional ballet. There were no soloists. Dancers were grouped and brought together to create human pyramids, leaning upon each other to form sculptural masses in which arms and legs and even heads and eyes played a vital part in the general design, most impressive in their deep emotional content and genuine spirituality.⁴²

In the London production of Les Noces in 1926, with the original, proletarian sets and costumes and Nijinska’s choreography, Eugene Goossens conducted Stravinsky’s complex score and Georges Auric and Francis Poulenc, both members of the French composers’ group Les Six, performed at two of the four pianos. But this time the critics’ reception was not at all favourable. The British press wrote about the ballet in dismissive terms. Ernest Newman, in the Sunday Times, spoke of it as a “hideous” composition. Another critic wrote that it was “enough to convert intending brides and grooms to celibacy”. A more forward-looking writer, H. G. Wells, spoke up eloquently in the ballet’s defence in an open letter to the tabloid press, saying that he could find no other ballet “so interesting, so amusing, so fresh or nearly so exciting… the ballet is a rendering in sound and vision of the [Russian] peasant soul”.⁴³ However, Les Noces, which had opened the six-week London summer season of the Ballets Russes, was dropped from the programme in favour of more conventional fare after the first two weeks.

4. 
   The British tours outside London
   

In 1928 the company performed in London in June and July with a strong programme that included Stravinsky’s new neo-classical ballet Apollon Musagète, just premiered at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. in April, and again, with Balanchine’s definitive choreography, in Paris in June. Also featured in the 1928 London season was The Gods Go a-Begging, a new ballet specifically designed to be premiered in England and to appeal to English tastes, with music borrowed from George Frederic Handel and arranged by Sir Thomas Beecham, libretto by Diaghilev’s secretary Boris Kochno, sets by Léon Bakst borrowed from the 1912 production of Daphnis and Chloë, and choreography by Balanchine. But then from 12^th November to 15^th December 1928 the Ballets Russes mounted a second English season touring outside London. The company performed not only in Manchester, Birmingham and Liverpool again, but also for the first time in Scotland, with many shows in Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Gods Go a-Begging, as a Diaghilev attempt at British ballet, was featured prominently.⁴⁴

5. 
   The impact of the Ballets Russes on English culture
   

It is most curious that in England a different and increasingly large public is enthralled by dancing and continues to be excited by all that bore, that today still bears, the name of Russian ballet. These after the war became almost a national institution.⁴⁵

In England the Ballets Russes was not merely a touring company from France that came for a season and went away again. It instigated a wave of Russian and French ballet immigration to London in the 1920s. True, this was part of the broader displacement of the tsarist Russian intelligentsia to the Western European capitals as a result of World War I and the Russian Revolution. But some of the foreign dancers who came to England with the Ballets Russes decided to stay, like Lydia Lopokova,⁴⁶ and other, English, dancers like Lydia Sokolova performed with Diaghilev under Russian or French stage names. When several of Diaghilev’s leading female dancers and choreographers, among them Ida Rubinstein, Nijinska, and Ninette de Valois, left the Ballets Russes after 1925 to pursue independent careers, the Irish-born de Valois⁴⁷ returned to London where she became the godmother of modern British ballet and the founder of the Sadlers Wells and Royal Ballet companies. She would later say that everything she knew about how to run a ballet company, she learned from working with Diaghilev.⁴⁸

By 1929, when the impresario died, the influence of public enthusiasm for his Russian ballet presentations had spread into the other arts in England far beyond anything devised by Diaghilev. Exhibitions brought modern Russian art increasingly to public notice. The Russian ballet also influenced the artistic ideas of the Bloomsbury Group, a rare constellation of outstanding English intellectuals and aesthetes of the 1920s which included such luminaries as the authors Virginia Woolf, E. M. Forster and Lytton Strachey, the artists and critics Clive Bell and Roger Fry, the economist John Maynard Keynes and his wife, the ballerina Lydia Lopokova. Roger Fry in particular recognised that the visual design of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes was stimulating some of the most advanced movements in painting and the making of real works of art.⁴⁹

Diaghilev had made a very original contribution to the art of stage design by insisting that the stage scenery, far from being merely an interpretation of designers’ working sketches, should be a reproduction of them. This meant that painters ceased to have inhibitions about working for the theatre because the characteristics of each artist’s style would not be compromised. Young English artists like Paul Nash, Duncan Grant and Christopher Wood were all influenced in this way. Being in the service of the ballet enabled modern British painting to reach a very large audience.⁵⁰

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