Phonetics as a branch of linguistics

structure and functions of the speech sounds. - This branch of linguistics is called phonetics.

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. These linguistic sciences study language from three different points of view. Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of language, with the origin and development of words, with their meaning and word building. Grammar defines the rules governing the modification of words and the combination of words into sentences. Phonetics studies the outer form of language; its sound matter.Phonetics occupies itself with the study of the ways in which the sounds are organized into a system of units and the variation of the units in all types and styles of spoken language.

Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches: articulatory, acoustic,auditory,functional /phonologicalEach branch of Theoretical Phonetics investigates the appropriate aspect of speech sounds.Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech apparatus and mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and the structure of one’s speech apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect of speech sounds both subjective and objective methods are employed: the method of direct observation (concerning the lips & the tongue movements) – subjective method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography (objective methods). Acoustic Phonetics studies the acoustic properties of sounds (quantity, timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal factor) in terms of the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The analysis begins with a microphone, which converts the air movement into corresponding electrical activity. While investigating the acoustic aspect of speech sounds special laboratory equipment is employed: spectrograph, intonograph, sound analyzing & sound synthesizing machines.

The oldest, simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation. This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing one's own kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.

Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (palatography, laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematography and electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct observation is widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and the subjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays we may use the up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech - so called articulograph.

the human speech apparatus. Descriptive phon – gices a description of all the phonetic units of the given language, studies the contemporary phon system. Historical phon- studies changes in the phon system and stages of historical development. Comparative –studies correlation between

phon systems of two laguages. Practical phon – studies the substance, material form of phon phenomena in relation to meaning. Theoretical phon- is concerned with functioning of phon units of the language.

Material and functional.

The phoneme is objective real, because it is realized in speech in the material form in speech in the material form of speech sounds, its allophones. On the other hand it’s an abstract language unit. That is why we can look upon the phoneme as a dialectical unity of the material and abstract aspects. Thus we may state that it exists in the material form of speech sounds, its allophones. Speech sounds are necessarily allophones of one of the phonemes of the language concerned. All the allophones of the same phoneme have some articulatory features in common, that is all of them possess the same invariant. That is why while teaching pronunciation we cannot ask pupils to pronounce this or that phoneme only one of its allophone.

Hear them they can be recordered) even if we know that speech is produced by brain and movements of organs of speech here articulatory phonetics hels us.

Distribution is a total sum of occurrences of a linguistic unit ( a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, a word combination). Distribution presupposes contexts in which a segment can be used. For example, in accordance with the distribution of the phoneme /N/ it can’t be used word initially. But we may use it word medially and word finally.

Distribution

contrastive

It is such a distribution in which allophones of different phonemes occur in identical phonetic context (cake – bake, bike – bite).

non-contrastive

It is such a distribution in which different allophones of the same phoneme occur in mutually exclusive positions ( /t/: try, at the, twice, kettle, kitten)

It is such a distribution in which different allophones of the same phoneme occur in the same phonetic context but are realized differently (let me /’lemmi/ & /’let mi/). It is determined by social and territorial stratification of language. Thus the distributional method is based on the following two laws of phonetic and allophonic distribution:

If more or less phonetically similar sounds occur in mutually exclusive positions they are called allophones of one and the same phoneme.

If more or less phonetically different sounds occur in the same phonetic contexts they are called allophones of different phonemes.

Intonation is a language universal. There is wide agreement among Russian linguists that on perception level intonation is a complex, a whole, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo closely related. Some Russian linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.

The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complex.

In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups.

Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:

• 
  the prehead
  
• 
  the head (the 1^st accented syllable)
  
• 
  the scale (begins with the 1^st acc.syll.)
  
• 
  the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern.
  
• 
  the tail – conveys no particular information
  

The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes.

The more the height of the pitch contrasts within the intonation pattern, the more emphatic the intonation group is. The number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them are equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center). It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and phonetically.

The functions of intonation:

• 
  constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)
  
• 
  delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).
  
• 
  distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:
  

→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)

→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)

→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)

the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning).

→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance.

We should give preference to J.D.O.’ Connor and G.F. Arnold’s system, which has no fever then ten different nuclear tones. It’s quite sufficient for teaching pronunciation even to high-levelled learners. All the relevant pitch changes in the pre-nuclear part are indicated by arrows placed before the first stressed syllable instead of an ordinary stress-mark:

That isn’t as simple as it

Sounds

consonant, the shortest is before voiceless consonant.

In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups.

Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:

• 
  the prehead
  
• 
  the head (the 1^st accented syllable)
  
• 
  the scale (begins with the 1^st acc.syll.)
  
• 
  the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern.
  
• 
  the tail – conveys no particular information
  

The word-stress fulfills the following functions:

• 
  constitutive (helps to organize sound continuum into words)
  
• 
  recognitive (helps to identify syllables as an accentual pattern of a word)
  
• 
  distinctive (helps to distinguish the meanings of words: a present – to present)
  

→ compound adjectives: absent-minded, dark-eyed

→ phrasal verbs: to get on, to give up

The nature of Word Stress is very complex. Word Stress presupposes such factors as: force, tone, length, vowel color. In such European languages as Russian, German, French, English stress has a dynamic nature (a force character). Musical/ tone word stress may be found in Chinese, Japanese. According to the place of word stress it may be free or fixed. Fixed stress falls on a particular syllable in a polysyllabic word.

• 
  the last syllable in French
  
• 
  the last but one syllable I Polish
  
• 
  the first syllable in Finish and Czech.
  

Phonetic – is international transcr it has symbols that stand for phoneme in different languages.

Is uses the fewest possible symbols and simpliest shapes. Letters are from latin alphabet.

Use of short sentences as I amean you know ect, great number of questions and exclamations, colloqueial ellipses, repetitions, verbal forms as he’s I’ll y ect.

A speaker may teach, persuade, narrate and etc so the speaker selects the phonetic means to realize his purpose. participants- (social status – he may be addressed by his subordinant, equal,

Superior, age- older people speak in a high tone than little children, sex – women use more correct or standart pronunciation and many high falls, emotional state – the speech is differ if the person is irritaded calm nervous o sad) setting – when the conversation is face to face they are more closer by so the speech is different too.

Word stress in a language performs three functions.1.Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress Thus the word stress performs the constitutive function. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatoiy(у него так в лекции) (or recognitive). Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communication easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding.3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. 'import — im'port, 'billow — below.

[hi wants - i wants] 3. initial “hw” – why when [hwen -hwy]. 4. loss of final [n] – sittin, lookin

5. glottal stops [not quiet – no/ quiet] 6. palatalized final [k] – [kwik’] 6.linking and intrusive [r] – its a far away country.

According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A. Hughes and others), the following variants of English are referred to the English-based group: English English, Welsh English, Australian English, New Zealand English;

Teaching practice as well as a pronouncing dictionary must base their

Practical

(he was heard badly – he was hurt badly).

consonant, the shortest is before voiceless consonant

of participants is a distance. While lecture the speaker stands I some distance from the audience but in a private conversation are usually closer by. So it is quiet natural that the speech of a lecturer and the speech in face to face communication is phonologically different in quite a

number of ways. Scenes may be arranged along the following dimensions public, private,

impersonal, personal, politic, casual, high cultural, law cultural, formal, informal.

.

speaking. When a person reads a text he doesn’t have to think what to say cause the text has already been written he only has to think haw to say, haw to make it sound properly. When a

person produces a spontaneous piece of text he has to think of what to say and how to say.

In other words the speaker has to decide spontaneously what ideas he wants to express and

choose an adequate linguistic form of expression. Two most important characteristics of spoken

speech are -1.hestitation 2. process of delimitation. Hestitation – when the speaker doesn’t know

what to say so hestitation pauses apprear the are used to fill the silence they can be: lengthening

of sounds, noises, words (well, anyway ect). Delimitation – pauses in any part of the utterance.

.

1)it is generally acknowledged that two historically long vowels [I:], [u:] have become diphthongized and are often called diphthongoids; the organs of speech slightly change their articulation by the very end of pronunciation, becoming more fronted. Ch.Barber tries to draw a parallel with the Great Vowel Shift which took place in Middle English, where diphthongization was just one part of a complete change of pattern in the long vowels. He claims that there is some resemblance to this process today and other phonemes may move up to fill the places left vacant.

2)There is a tendency for some of the existing diphthongs to be smoothed out, to become shorter, so that they are more like pure vowels.

a)this is very often the case with [ei], particulary in the word final position, where the glide is very slight: [tə'dei], [sei],[mei].

b)diphthongs [ai], [au] are subject to a smoothing process where they are followed by neutral sound [ə]:

Conservative RP: [tauə], [faiə]

General RP: [taə], [faə]

Advanced RP: [ta:], [fa:]

c)also diphthongs [ ], [ ] tend to be leveled to [ ]. Thus the pronunciation of the words pore, poor is varied like this:

older speakers: [ ], [ ]

middle-aged speakers: [ ], [ ]

younger speakers: [ ], [ ]

It should be mentioned, however, that this tendency does not concern the diphthong [iə] when it is final. The pro minence and length shift to the glide, this final quality often being near to [ ]:

Dear[diə]-[di ]

Very striking changes occur in the vowel quality affected by the horizontal movements of the tongue. In fact the general tendency is marked by the centering of both front and back vowels:

a)the nuclei of [ai], [au] ten to be more back, especially in the male variant of the pronunciation;

b)the vowel phoneme [ǽ] is ofen replaced by [a] by younger speakers:[hǽv]-[hav],[ǽnd]-[and];

c)the nucleus of the diphthong [ ] varies considerably, ranging from [ou] among conervative speakers to [ ] among advanced ones:

Conservative RP: [ ],[ ],[ ];

Advanced RP:[ ],[ ],[ ]

This tendency is so strong that the transcription symbol has been recently changed in many British books: [ou]-[ ]

d)Back-advanced vowels [ ], [ ] are considerably fronted in the advanced RP:but[ ]-[bət], good [ ]-[gəd].

It should be mentioned here that there is a tendency for all short vowels to be made nearer the center of the mouth, that is to move towards [ə], especially in unstressed position: honest[`anist]-[anəst].

Thus te horizontal changes in vowel quality may be listed like this:

Centering of short vowels:

More back pronunciation of the nuclei of diphthongs:[ai]-[ ],[ ]-[ ]

More advanced pronunciation of the diphthong:[ ],[ ]

More fronted pronunciation of the diphthongoids:[I:]-[I(j)], [u]-[u(w)].

Vertical changes in vowels may be traced in [e] and [ ] which tend to be closer in advanced RP. It has also beek stated above that the nuclei of diphthongs [ei], [ ], [ ], [ ] become more open when these phonemes are being leveled, particularly the diphthong [ ] , which is characterized by a great opening of the first element: careful[` ]-[ ]. The first element of the diphthong [ ] can be lowered considerably. Thus several words with [ ] are given a shade [ ] pronunciation by some advanced RP speakers; poor, sure [ , ]-[ , ]

It is general knowledge that when sounds are in company they influence each other. These changes are called combinative. They take place only in certain phonetic contexts. In a diacritic study, however, there is n sharp boundary between isolative and combinative changes.

1)Changes in [j+u:], [l+u:]. Words like suit, student, super may be pronounced either [sju:t] or [su:t], [stju:dent] or [stu:dnt], [sju:pə] or [su:pə].The tendency is for middle-aged and younger speakers to omit the [j] after [s] before [u:]. Word-internally [j] tends to be retained as in assume [asju:m]. There is also fluctuation after [l]: word-initially lute [lu:t] is normal, but it is possible to pronounce [I`lju:zn] in illusion, for example. These recent developments in combinatine RP changes bear remarkable resemblance to American Standart pronunciation.

2)Change of [ ] to [ ] before [f,s,θ].Where orthographic “o” occurs before the voiceless fricatives [f,s,θ] older speakers pronounce the vowel [ ]: loss [ ].This pronunciation is currently dying uot in RP and being replaced by [ ]:[ ]

Words like salt and fault still may be pronounced with [ ]

4.Changes in length.

It is an accepted fact that English vowels vary in length according to the phonetic context-the consonant they are followed by (voiceless,voised), syllabic border,the degree of stress, the types of nuclear tone and so on.

Actually nowadwys there are changes in vowel length that are influenced by other factors. There is , for example, a strong tendency for the so called short vowels to be lengthened, and it is interesting to note that this legthening can be heard sporadically in many words in any position.

The lengthening of [I] is often heard in big, his,is; of [ ] in good; [ ] in come. It should also be mentioned that [I] is often lengthened in the final syllable, i.e. very, many.