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South America. Spanish-speaking countries are Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. Argentina. Argentina is the largest Spanish speaking country in South America. Its capital is the great city of *Buenos Aires. *Alberto Nin Frias was a major gay cultural historian. *Tulio Carella and *Nestor Perlongher are both poets who emigrated to Brazil. The poet and prose writer *Jorge Luis Borges is a fascinating figure from a homosexual point of view. The Polish writer *Witold Gombrowicz emigrated to Argentina in 1939, while the Argentinian *Juan Rudolph Wilcock emigrated to Italy where he writes in Italian. With the return of democracy following the period of military rule (1976–1984), poetry writing has flourished: see *Miguel Angel Lens, *Claudio Lerena, *Daniel Navarro, *Oscar Vitelleschi. Bolivia. See *Jaime Saenz, *Ernesto Che Guevara. Chile. The great *Communist poet *Neruda who won the *Nobel Prize for Literature and was not homosexual was, however, strongly influenced by *Walt Whitman. See also *Fernando Alegria. Columbia. See *Leon Zuleta. *Bernardo Arias Trujillo wrote a brilliant long gay poem about a *boy prostitute. Peru. See the Communist poet *Cesar Vallejo, *Garcilaso de la Vega, *Jorge Eduardo Eielson. Uruguay. See *Alberto Nin Frias. Carlos Basilio Munoz, Uruguay homosexual (Montevideo, 1996), 175 pp. with bibl. pp. 172–75, is a lightweight work in relation to gay culture. Venezuela. *Reynaldo Hayn, *Proust's lover, came from the country. *Enrique Nunez has written a sequence and *Miguel Castillo Didier compiled the first Spanish dictionary of sexual words. See also *Anthony Knight-Dewey and *Oral Poems–Makiritare. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, vol. 2, 678–81: "Latin America". Summers, Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage: "Latin American Literature". Gay Histories and Cultures: see "Argentina", "Cuban Literature and Culture" and "Cuban Writing in Exile". Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 2, 329–81 (includes a selection of poems). Bibliographies. Dynes, Homosexuality: A Research Guide, pp.151–56. Other works. Karsch-Haack, Das gleichgeschlechtliche Leben der Naturvölker, 392–446. Spanish in Spain Spanish is spoken in Spain in the *Iberian peninsula and also in South America (see the separate entry *Overview—Spanish in South America). It is a *Romance language in the *Indo-European language family. Material of relevance dates from ca. 1200. Before this, during Roman occupation, the spoken language in Spain was Latin; Spanish is the modern form of the Latin formerly spoken in Spain. The Latin gay poet *Martial came from Spain. *Kharjas are the first Spanish poems but were not poems as such. They were Spanish couplets added to Arabic poems. Spain was under Arabic domination until 1150 and had a rich Arabic homosexual tradition (see *Influence—Arabic) which continued in the extreme south in Granada until the expulsion of the Moors in 1492. Though the *Poema de Mio Cid (ca. 1200) is relevant, *Coplas del provincial (ca. 1474), which satirizes the court (referring to homosexuality) is the first poem with overt gay references. The Spanish *mystic, *Saint John of the Cross, wrote homoerotic poems and the great seventeenth century poet *Góngora has been thought to be gay by some. The *law has been repressive and homosexuality only recently became legal in 1975. The twentieth century. Several of the *modernist *generation of 1927—including the great poet *Federico García Lorca were gay; see also *Juan Gil-Albert. Lorca is the subject of a fine biography by *Ian Gibson who has also examined the circumstances of his murder in 1936 when Spain fell under the dictatorship of General Franco until Franco’s death in 1975). Lorca wrote gay poems, some only recently published. *Angel Sahuqillo has discussed homosexuality in the work of the generation of 1927 in a fine thesis and *Paul Binding has written a study of Lorca in gay terms. *Emilio Garcia Gomez's translation of Arabic homopoets from 1930 may have inspired Lorca. Lorca may have also possibly been inspired by *Antonio San de Velilla's *historical survey of gay culture published just before the Franco regime's repression from the 1930s. The fine gay poet, *Luis Cernuda, more important than Lorca for the openness of his poetry, fled to Great Britain, the United States and Mexico following the rise of General Franco when the republic was defeated. *Salvador Dali, the *surrealist artist, is known to have inspired Lorca's love. *Poemes Gay (1978) is a recent anthology—the only gay anthology as such—while *Cuaderno Bibliografia Gay (1987) is the only gay bibliography so far. Spanish translations of Arabic (and Hebrew) poets who wrote homosexual poems form part of the corpus of Spanish gay poetry e.g., translation of the Arabic poets *Ibn Sahl and *Ibn Kuzman. Spanish also has a rich translation tradition from other languages—e.g., *Straton and the *Mousa Paidike have been translated from Greek. Latin was the language of the *Catholic church, the only religion from 1492, and gay poets in Latin were read by clerics and educated Spaniards. The finest gay reading of Spanish poetry from Spain so far is an interview by *Jaime Gil de Biedma, who was himself a fine gay poet; he died of *Aids and has become something of a cult figure. *Luis Antonio de Villena is a major contemporary gay poet. Events in Spain and Spanish politics and culture have strongly influenced its former colonies in central and south America (from Mexico to Argentina and Chile). Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Summers, Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage: see "Spanish Literature". Gay Histories and Cultures: see "Spanish Literature". Gay Poetry Anthologies. Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature, 475. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 2, 329–31 and 335–81 (selection of poems). Swedish Swedish is an *Indo-European language in the *Germanic group and is close to the neighboring languages of Norwegian, Danish, and German. It is spoken in Sweden. *Victor Rydberg (active 1870) is the first poet of note. The work of *Vilhelm Ekelund and *Gunnar Bjorling (whose work belongs also with Fenno-Swedish literature, Swedish literature written in Finland) dates from 1900. *Nils Hallbeck who wrote from the 1950s is the finest openly gay poet. The work of the United Nations secretary-general *Dag Hammarskjold warrants perusal since he appears to have been gay. *Allen Ginsberg and *Dinos Christianopoulos (pseud.) have been translated into Swedish, as have many classic authors such as *Platen. *Bengt Martin is a contemporary poet of note. *Olle-Petter Melin compiled a fine bibliography in 1975. The legal situation for gays is relaxed; see Gay Books Bulletin no. 5, 25–27 on the Swedish gay group RFSL. Rosa Rummet is a gay bookshop which has published from 1988 *Rosa Bulletinen, a listing of new European gay books. The gay and lesbian foundation of Sweden's archive is now at the Riksarchivet (State Archive) in Stockholm. See also *Overview—Norse. *Jacques d'Adelswärd Fersen came from Sweden. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 1267–71: "Sweden". Bibliographies. Simes, Bibliography of Homosexuality, 193–94. Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 2, 381-82 (overview), 396-9408 (selection of poems). Syriac Syriac (sometimes called Syrian) is an *Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Syria through which much of ancient Greek culture passed to Arabic culture (for example, *Plato's Timaeus—though not, apparently, his *Symposium). The language is an eastern dialect of Aramaic, the language of *Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianit (see *Overview—Aramaic). Material dates from 100 B.C. Syriac's importance for this encyclopedia is primarily as a bridge language. Antioch, a major city in northern Syria (an area formerly covering Lebanon and southern Turkey), was famous for its licentiousness in the ancient world: see *hymns regarding mother goddess worship and alleged males who castrate themselves (ca. 100 B.C.). Though ancient Syria was preeminently the country of pleasure, the surviving literature from the time of *Christianity on, is religious in basis. Much ancient material seems lost. Cultures impinging on Syrian include ancient Hebrew and Greek cultures, the Latin speaking Romans and Persian, Arabic and Turkish speaking cultures. *Horace Satires i. 2. 116–19 mentions Syrian *slave boys; see also *New Testament, *Flagellation, *Sir James Frazer. The Syrian New Testament, called the Peshitta (Syrian: "simple"), is one of the earliest translations. Homosexuality is known extensively in monasteries and *Saint Ephraim, a famous Syrian saint who wrote hymns and praised virginity, may have been gay. On Syrian literature see W. Wright, Syriac Literature, 1894. On the relation of the language to Aramaic see "Aramaic" in G. A. Buttrick, editor, The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 1962, vol. 1. Tagalog Tagalog is a *Malayo-Polynesian language spoken in the Philippines where it is the official language (about thirty-five other languages are spoken in the country). Material dates from 1992. The first gay anthology *Ladlad, consisting of poetry and prose, was published in 1992, in which year a gay book of poems by *J. Neil C. Garcia was successfully launched. In 1993 a gay book of poems by *Nicholas Pichay was published. J. Neil Garcia has also published a history of Philippine gay culture and critical essays. *Transvestites sing *songs and *singing and dancing boys exist; the term in Tagalog bakla has been used for effeminate gays but gay is increasingly used. On the *Internet a web site called Kakasarian (of the same sex), Queer Resources for Filipinos, has been in existence from at least 1995; material on the site includes an anthology of gay chants. Tajik Tajik, one of the *Iranian languages, is a simplified form of Persian spoken in central Asia in the area known as Turkestan notably Tajikstan (see Encyclopædia Britannica entry and *Songs—Tajik). Material dates from 1500. *Hilali (active 1500) is the first poet of note, though *Mushfiqi of Bukhara, who wrote gay poems in Persian may be relevant. *Dancing boy *songs can be documented from ca. 1885 at least (and probably date much earlier). *Islam is the religion. There are strong oral traditions. As the discussion in Rypka, History of Iranian Literature, cited below, makes clear, Persian traditions operate and there are also close ties to Uzbek traditions. Tajikistan was under Russsian domination from 1917 to 1989, when the great Soviet orientalist *Evgenii Bertel's was the leading expert on the literature in Russia. *Lahuti is a modern poet of some relevance. Jünger, Literatures of the Soviet Peoples, pp. 80–83 has a survey of the literature. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Rypka, History of Iranian Literature, 483–600 and bibl. 814–31. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 25: see "Literature" in "Tadzik Soviet Socialist Republic". Tamil Tamil is the most ancient and most widely spoken of the *Dravidian languages of southern India for recorded literary material; it is spoken in the state of Tamil Nadu. Material dates from 100 B.C. The *Eight Tamil Anthologies are the earliest relevant works. In an *epic poem by *Ilankovatikal (active 500) the hero abandons his wife for men at one stage. The *Mahabharata, *Bhagavad Gita and *Ramayana all exist in Tamil versions as do various epic poems. Saivism (based on the work of *Shiva), *Vaisnavism and *Bhakti are practiced. There is a strong oral tradition of homoerotic *hymns addressed to Siva and *Krishna. *Hijras, men who dress as women and are castrated, exist. For a survey of the literature see Kamil Veith *Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Weisbaden, 1974. Sanskrit has had a strong influence: see *Overview—Sanskrit. George Hart, The Relation between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature, Wiesbaden, 1976, discusses the interrelationship of the two literatures: it is claimed by some Tamil speakers that works in Sanskrit originated in Tamil and not vice versa which Sanskrit speakers claim. Tiruvalluvar (active fourth or fifth century), a probably *Jain writer is famous for his couplets and has been compared to some of the world's greatest writers. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Shipley, Encyclopedia of Literature, 557–64. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 25: "Tamil Literature". New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, 590–92 and following. Thai Thai is a tonal language thought by some to be *Sino-Tibetan but regarded by others as from a separate family, called the Tai family. It is spoken in Thailand. Material dates form 1920. No gay poets are known so far except for the Thai king *Rama the Sixth (active 1920). *Buddhism is the religion though Indian influence has been strong—e.g., the *Ramayana is performed in dance. There is no law against homosexuality in Thailand and homosexuality is fairly openly accepted (e.g., there has been a Thai Prime Minister who was open about his homosexuality). Northern Thai is written in a phonetic script based on central Thai and Chinese *influence is noticeable. Southern Thai is written in a phonetic script related to south Indian and Khmer scripts and dating from ca. 1300. There are rich oral traditions in Thai and several minority languages in Thailand (e.g., Shan). Chinese, Burmese, Laotian and Cambodian are adjoining languages. There is a large Chinese community in Thailand, mainly from south China and Cantonese speaking. *Omar Khayyam has been translated. Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, has a thriving gay culture and several gay journals have appeared from 1984 based around the bar culture (see the entry on the city in *Gay Histories and Cultures). In 1985, The National Library in the capital Bangkok held no books in Thai specifically on homosexuality (see Peter Jackson, Male Homosexuality in Thailand, cited below, p. 7). Homosexuals who worked in classical song and dance are relevant and a gay tradition is likely. Earlier in the century the French sexual philosopher *René Guyon worked in Thailand. A tradition of transvestism and *singers in populare culture may and probably does exist. There is a tradition of erotic heterosexual poetry. See *Suntorn Pu (1786-1855) for a *non gender specific love poem and *Camille Kepler re a poem on a *pedophile theme in French referring to sex with a ten-year-old Thai boy. On the literature see Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume one, pp. 1362–82. On the gay social background see Peter A. Jackson, Male Homosexuality in Thailand, New York, 1989; this contains a Thai English lexis pp. 276–77 and bibliography in English and Thai pp. 278–80 (review: Murray, Oceanic Homosexualities, 387–96; Journal of Homosexuality 20, 1990, 126–138); an expanded version of this book is Dear Uncle Go: male homosexuality in Thailand, Bangkok and San Francisco, 1995. The author has also written "Thai research on Male Homosexuality and Transgenderism and the Cultural Limits of Foucaultian Analysis", Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 8 no. 1 (1997), 52–85. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 1288–1290. Great Soviet Encyclopedia , vol. 24, 559. Gay Histories and Cultures: see "Thailand". Tibetan Tibetan, a *Sinitic language spoken in the Tibetan autonomous region of China (formerly the country of Tibet), has been greatly influenced by *Turkic languages (especially Uighur) spoken to the north. Material dates from 1670. Tibetan lacks gender. The country has been under Chinese control since 1951 and there have been reliable reports of the large scale destruction of Tibetan culture since then (up to 3,000 monasteries and buildings destroyed especially since 1959). The country was formerly a theocracy with a monk ruler, the *Dalai Lama, who now lives in northern India in Dharamsala north of Delhi after escaping in 1959 (India is now a center of the culture but there is a Tibetan diaspora in other parts of the world). As in Mongolia, monks and monasteries are a dominant feature of Tibetan life. No notice is taken of homosexuality in monasteries and Tibetans are said to very comfortable about homosexuality (see Heinrich Harrer, Seven Years in Tibet, Los Angeles, 1981, p. 217); monks are frequently gay and no fuss is made (oral sources to the author). Peter, Prince of Greece and Denmark, in A Study of Polyandry, 1963, states, p. 458, "monasteries in Tibet.. have.. a very strong reputation for male homosexuality..." The *Tibetan Book of the Dead (text possibly ca. 1120), a prose work with poetry, which is a work of philosophy, has a homosexual episode. *Buddhist hymns and chants are relevant as is Tibetan *Tantrism and its secret sexual traditions; the *Kama Sutra has been translated. Strong oral traditions exist and a huge literature—mostly religious—existed (though 60% of this has been destroyed under *Communist Chinese control of Tibet). The sixth Dali Lama *Lobzang Rindzin was a sexual libertine and his poems, emerging from the oral folk tradition, have been a source of much interest culminating in several translations. They present interesting possibilities from the point of view of a gay reading; some can be read as gay poems in English translation. Tibetan is written in an alphabet related to Devanagari, the writing system of Hindi. Assamese and Nepali are spoken to the south east, Punjabi and Hindi in the south west, and Chinese to the north east. There are *secret interpretations of letters and words of the language. For the language see the entry in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. For the literature see Queneau, Histoire des littératures, volume one, pp. 1118–39. David Snellgrove, A Cultural History of Tibet, 1968, is an excellent introduction to Tibetan civilization. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 25: see "Tibetan Autonomoous Region". Dictionary of Oriental Literatures: various entries. Turkish Turkish, a member of the *Altaic language family, is the major literary language of the *Turkic languages which are spoken across Asia from Turkey to China; these languages are all close. Turkish is spoken in Turkey (sometimes referred to by Greeks in its ancient Greek name of Anatolia “eastern”). It is a major language for homosexual poetry. *Islam is the dominant religion and there has been close interconnection with *Islamic languages especially Arabic (see *Influence—Arabic) and Persian (see *Influence—Persian). Material dates from 1320. Turkish before 1928 is called Ottoman Turkish; it was a language which was written in the Arabic script and had a large proportion of Arabic and Persian words. From 1928 the first President of the Turkish Republic, Kemal Ataturk, insisted by law that the language be written in the Latin alphabet. There was also a campaign in the 1920s to purify the language and replace Arabic and Persian words with Turkish words. As a result, Ottoman Turkish is not understood by modern Turkish speakers and is only taught in universities. The Divan poets. The *mystical *Sufi oral poet *Yunus Emre (active 1320), whose poetry emerges out of that of *Rumi (the founder of Sufism who died in Turkey), is the first known relevant poet. The language has a strong poetry tradition dating from the fifteenth century. These poets, writing in the *Ottoman period are called *divan poets, so called because poems were recited on a low bed on the floor in a private setting. All divan poets are relevant as there was a convention of addressing the beloved in the male form (see *gender switching). There are also strong *oral poetry traditions which continue today, including *dancing boys who sing songs (see *Ingeborg Baldauf, *Jonathan Drake [pseud.]). Dancing boys were so famous that the poet *Enderunlu Fazil wrote about one, *Çingene Ismail, in poetry and forty-five are mentioned by name in another work; Enderunlu Fazil wrote a poem mentioning dancing boys from Istanbul. Outstanding poets of the Divan tradition include *Baki, *Nedim, *Ahmedi, *Ahmet Pasha, *Nef`i, *Necati, *Razi; *pederasty was the dominant form of homosexuality in these poets (who appear in *The Penguin Book of Turkish Verse and in whose poetry the *ghazal is the major genre). Poetry of this period is many-layered. Traditional Turkish poets used *pseudonyms (see *takhallus). The Penguin Book of Turkish Verse has a splendid introduction discussing homosexuality in the traditional poetry by the great Turkish scholar *Fahrir Iz. In *long poems *Mehmed Ghazali wrote a *mesnevi (also spelt mathnavi) comparing the anus and the vagina for pleasure and *Mesihi a mathnavi on the beautiful youths of Edirne. *Fadil Bey wrote homosexual poetry. During the Ottoman period, 1453 to 1921 (when Turkey became a republic) the Ottoman empire reached from the Balkans to Egypt and as far as Iran. Persian *influence was strong (Turkish—like Persian—also does not have gender) and can be seen in the use of the *cupbearer and *wine drinking tropes. Many *Sultans, rulers of the Turkish Ottoman empire, wrote homopoems—for instance *Selim I—as did the Emperor *Babar in India. *Literary historians and critics who have discussed homosexual poetry include, in German, *Hammer-Purgstall and, in English, *E. G. Browne and *E J Gibb and there are several historians in Russian (where much work on Turkic languages has been done). The critic *Ismet Eyuboglu dealt with homosexuality in poetry. A huge corpus of *Manuscripts exists, especially in *Istanbul, the capital of Turkey which has long connections with Turkish gay poetry (including a several centuries old *meeting place); *Helmut Ritter was a German gay scholar who lived there and wrote extensive critical works. The *historical and social background has recently been investigated in Turkish by *Arslan Yüzgün. For biographical sources see *Biography—Turkish. See also *Rebetika, a Greek genre which came from Turkey. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 1329–30: "Turkey". Encyclopaedia of Islam, first edition (1934): see "Ottoman Literature" under the entry "Turks" 938–59 (with important bibl.). Great Soviet Encyclopedia: see "Literature" in the article "Turkey", vol. 26 pp. 474–77. New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: see "Turkish Poetry" (with bibl.). Gay Poetry Anthologies. Reid, Eternal Flame, volume 1, 357–76. Ukrainian Ukrainian is an *Indo-European language in the *Slavic group and is spoken by more people than any other Slavic language apart from Russian. Material dates from 1913. The language is spoken in Ukraine which became an independent state in 1990 after the breakup of the Soviet empire. The Russians under the Soviet system had ruled from 1924. Religion in the country is *Orthodox Christianity. Conditions in the country are very difficult. *Oral epics involving *pobratim (brotherhood) exist as do *songs. Translations of homopoets include *Whitman, *Shakespeare, *Catullus and *Martial, translated in 1913 (the latter both translated by T. Franko). Folk material has been investigated by Pavlo Tarasevskjy (see *Sexology and sexologists—European). See Volodymyr Kubijovyc, editor, Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia, 2 volumes, Toronto, 1963, for information on the country. Male homosexuality was legalized between 1990 and 1992 (before Russia). Kiev is the capital of Ukraine. Jünger, Literatures of the Soviet Peoples, pp. 86–93, has a survey of the literature. Directory: 2008 2008 -> Exam 1 of Computer Networks (ice 1230) 2008 7 2008 -> Program description 2008 -> Curriculum Vitae Museok Song 2008 -> Word Wall Chants Use these as fun ways to practice word wall words at home! 2008 -> Rockettothesky 2008 -> "Unique " "dfo " "Glide " "Country" "Other" "Nations" "X. 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