How did the circumstances of immigrant workers differ from those of native laborers?

The influx of immigrants provided a large work force so their leverage was weaker because of the inflation of cheap labor. Since natives had no love for the immigrants, no one cared about their working condition or wages so their quality of life was terrible. Immigrants barely made enough to love and could hardly provide for their families.

The general condition was still better than Europe but factory areas became an unsanitary and dangerous place to live. Artisan were becoming obsolete so they began to form trade unions to prevent job loss.

Workers tried to pass legislature to better their lots. Unions were formed to protect workers’ rights but little was accomplished. Immigrants were the reason why workers had modest power because of the fear that an immigrant would replace your job since they were willing to do it cheaper.

The wealth wasn’t equally distributed because of the small amount of economic growth on the poor side. Unequal distributions were seen in slaves, unskilled workers, and landless farmers. This was seen in the living conditions, and income of these groups.

The middle class grew in this time of large commercial and industrial growth as business and trade opportunities became more available. Many people who didn’t own land before could become prosperous by pushing valuable services into the economy. This helped to create a more urban setting at this time as middle class could attain substantial houses comparable to the wealthy’s. Women often stayed home, but were sometimes able to hire servants to take care of the family.

There were a few reasons. The lower class laborers were seeing a decrease in economic status, but often found themselves in better living conditions. They were generally in better conditions than they had before farming, or working in another country. Also, social mobility was possible, so this gave the workers something to strive for. If the workers didn’t move up the ladder, they hoped to give their children a better chance of moving up. Lastly, politics helped them feel involved in decision making, which gave them a sense of power.

This was mainly caused by the change of setting from the farm to the urban life, where jobs were more important than land. In this situation children were much more likely to look for work and jobs instead of the parents controlling them with the distribution of land. Family farms and shops became more prevalent. On farms as profitability grew, farmhands were the main work force, and women moved to indoor jobs.

The distinction of public and private worlds helped to outline the differences. The thought of a woman being “male property” became more prevalent at this time as women’s social roles changed, and they almost became less of a voice. There were many though who believed that this new sphere showed characteristics of women that were superior to men even though they were being oppressed.

This brought about the idea of middle class women not being income producers, but instead they were believed to have “domestic virtues” that were central to the family. They also became important consumers. In this, they lived in greater material comfort than before but for a cost of some freedoms and new oppression.

The rapid growth of industrialization and urbanizing. This pushed commercial agriculture, and industrialized farming. Agriculture declined in areas that couldn’t compete with this new type of farming. In general, this made farming more of a part of the capitalist economy in America.

The basis of the economy was agriculture, but was growing in the meatpacking industry. Goods that were produced there included flour, meat, and whiskey. Industry in general was much less important here than farming.

Most of the goods were marketed overseas, to places like Europe. This industrial agriculture was boosted, and demand rose. This led to the expansion to uncultivated lands in areas like: Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, and Iowa. Here, other crops also became more important.

The automatic reaper allowed one person to harvest as much wheat as five people in day. This was created by Cyrus McCormick. Also, Jerome Case made a threshing machine in Wisconsin that could thresh 25 bushels or more in an hour. These both helped increase productivity, and helped the economy grow.

Court case in which the Supreme Court of Massachusetts declared that unions are lawful and that strikes are a lawful weapon. It was the greatest victory for most industrial workers in Massachusetts in the time period.

The decisions made in this court case led to other states gradually accepting the same principles for unions. Overall, the case didn't effect much because union leaders couldn't get enough workers to have an effective strike.

"Cult of Domesticity"

Refers to the period in mid-19th century when women started to have more important roles in society. They obtained a better education, taught morality and benevolence, and became the teachers of religion to their children.

The Cult of Domesticity allowed women to live lives of greater material comfort, and higher value was placed on "female virtues" and motherly and wifely roles. There are also forms of female entertainment such as all magazines and clubs for just women.

Cyrus H. McCormick

Virginia farmer and inventor of the automatic reaper. Established a large grain factory in

Chicago at the heart of the grain belt. The automatic reaper allowed for one worker to harvest as much wheat as five could without the reaper. 100,000 of McCormick's reapers were in use in 1860. De Witt Clinton and the Erie Canal. Became the governor of New York in 1817. He was an advocate of building the eerie canal because of its economic advantages, and he began the start of its construction when he became governor.

The canal provided a route the Great Lakes, and gave New York City direct access to Chicago and markets in the west. The canal caused for New York City to compete with New Orleans as a destination for agricultural and manufactured goods.

System of goods being produced in large factories instead of in small workshops or households. It was made due to increasing technology and demand for more goods and a faster rate. Was first seen in the textile industry.

The factory system greatly hurt home-based system (cottage industry) of spinning thread. It led to more people working in factories, including women and children.

Godey's Lady's Book

A popular women's magazine in the mid-19th century edited by Sarah Hale. It was about homemaking, shopping, fashion, and other interests that women had at the time.

This book helped create women's own culture, or "separate sphere" at the time. It was the first popular magazine that focused on the interests of women, not on politics and public controversies.

Know Nothings

Nativists that that believed native born Americans should be superior to immigrants. They wanted to ban minorities from voting because they "corrupted politics." They were called the Native American party before the know nothing's.

The Know Nothing's formed the American party to get their beliefs pushed in politics. They won control of the state governments in New York and Pennsylvania, but didn't have much influence on any there states in the country.

Lowell System

A factory labor system that consisted of all unmarried young women. They were treated well and had very good living and working conditions compared to women factory workers in England.

This kind of environment made the transition from farm to factory working less strange and difficult for women. It showed that conditions in factories for everyone didn't have to be so harsh.

Machine Tools

Tools used to make machinery part that were an important contribution to manufacturing. The turret lathe and the universal milling machine were two important ones from the time period.

They government supported the creation of machine tools because many were made to aid the military. Machine tools in U.S factories eventually became better than those in Europe.

Nativism

A defense of native born Americans in the U.S (not Indians) and opposed those in the U.S that were foreign born. Nativists were against immigration and felt immigrants were inferior.

Nativists felt that immigrants were taking the jobs of Americans, not allowing social mobility. Nativism led to formation of the Native American party and the Know-Nothings.

P. T. Barnum

A famous American showman who opened the American Museum in New York City in 1852. This museum was a freak show, consisting of midgets, magicians and other entertainers.

Barnum used propaganda and lectures to promote his museum, making it much more popular across the country. Barnum's works gave the people at the time an interesting way to be entertained.

Samuel F. B. Morse

First person to successfully make a working telegraph. He transmitted the news of Polk's nomination from Baltimore to Washington D.C.

The telegraph allowed for the fastest long distance communication at the time. It led to the formation of the Western Union Telegraph Company.

Sarah Bagley

The leader of the women in the Lowell system. She created the Female Labor Reform Association, which demanded 10 hour days and improvements in the mills.

The association ended up turning to the state government for reform. However, they never had much impact due to the women at the time leaving the mills to start families and get the jobs.

Trunk Lines

Name given to longer railroad lines that replaced shorter railroad lines in the U.S. They started to connect different cities across the country.

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  Page 260-261:
  
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  "The American Patriot" was a nativist newspaper
  
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  Provisions of the Arizona State Senate Bill 1070, signed into law by Governor Jan Brewer, included the right of law enforcement agents to ask for a person's immigration documents during routine stops, and a mandate that any illegal immigrant convicted of a crime or misdemeanor to be turned over to federal immigration agents.
  
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  The bill resulted in the persecution of both legal and illegal immigrants.
  

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  Page 272-275:
  
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  Strict rules governed women's time away from the textile mills. They even stayed in company-supervised boardinghouses. "Handbook to Lowell" includes the factory and boardinghouse rules, health and safety, record keeping and reporting of information, conflicts of interest, fair dealing, quality, protection and proper use of company assets, confidentiality, encouraging the reporting of any illegal or unethical behavior, and waiver of the code of business conduct and ethics.
  
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  Page 284-285:
  
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  Works of art often depict family life. "Godey's Lady's Book" included an image that focused on the lives of better-off white women, and it also featured advice columns on family living. A lot is said in the small details of images of the family life. Looking at the details of these images over time show the evolution of family life in America.
  

• 
  Setting the Stage
  
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    The South, like the North, grew territorially as well as agriculturally leading to economic growth too
    
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    Cotton trade allowed the South to become a major force in international commerce
    
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    As the South grew and expanded, it became increasingly unlike the North and increasingly sensitive to what it considered threats to its distinctive way of life.
    
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  The Cotton Economy
  
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    The most important economic development in the mid-nineteenth-century South was the shift of economic power from the “upper South” (the original southern states along the Atlantic coast) to the “lower South” (the expanding agricultural regions in the new states of the Southwest)
    
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    The Rise of King Cotton
    
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  Decline of the Tobacco Economy
  
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    Tobacco also rapidly exhausted the land on which it grew
    
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    it was difficult for most growers to remain in business in the same place for very long
    
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    Many farmers were reverting to other crops
    
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      Such a wheat
      
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      Rice
      
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      rice, however, demanded substantial irrigation and needed an exceptionally long growing season (nine months)
      
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      Sugar
      
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      sugar cultivation required intensive (and debilitating) labor and a long growing time
      
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  Short Staple Cotton
  
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    This was a hardier and coarser strain of cotton that could grow successfully in a variety of climates and in a variety of soils
    
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    It was harder to process than the long-staple variety; its seeds were more difficult to remove from the fiber
    
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  Demand for Cotton
  
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    growth of the textile industry in Britain and in New England, created an enormous new demand for the crop
    
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    As a result, ambitious men and women rapidly moved into previously uncultivated lands to establish new cotton- growing regions
    
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    cotton had become the linchpin of the southern economy
    
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  Spread of Cotton Production
  
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    There were periodic fluctuations in cotton prices
    
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    the cotton economy continued to grow
    
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    By the time of the Civil War, cotton constituted nearly two- thirds of the total export trade of the US bringing in nearly $200 million a year
    
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      The annual value of the rice crop was $2 million
      
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    Southern politicians now proclaimed: “Cotton is king!”
    
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      "Lower South" nickname was "Cotton Kingdom"
      
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    The prospect of tremendous profits from growing cotton drew white settlers to the lower South by the thousands
    
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      Some were wealthy planters from the older states who transferred their assets and slaves to a cotton plantation
      
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  Expansion of Slavery
  
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    410,000 slaves moved from the upper South to the cotton states
    
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      either accompanying masters who were themselves migrating to the Southwest or (more often) sold to planters already there
      
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    the sale of slaves to the Southwest became an important economic activity in the upper South
    
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      It also helped the troubled planters of that region compensate for the declining value of their crops
      
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  Southern Trade and Industry
  
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    In the face of this booming agricultural expansion, other forms of economic activity developed slowly in the South
    
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  Weak Manufacturing Sector
  
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    There was growing activity in flour milling and in textile and iron manufacturing, particularly in the upper South
    
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    The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond compared favorably with the best iron mills in the Northeast
    
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      industry remained an insignificant force in comparison with the agricultural economy
      
      • 
        To the degree that the South developed a nonfarm commercial sector
        
    • 
      it was largely to serve the needs of the plantation economy
      
  • 
    The South had only a very rudimentary financial system
    
    • 
      the factors often also served the planters as bankers, providing them with credit
      
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      Factors= the brokers
      
  • 
    Planters frequently accumulated substantial debts particularly during periods when cotton prices were in decline
    
  • 
    the southern merchant-bankers thus became figures of considerable influence and importance in the region
    

• 
  south lacked basic services and structures needed for industrial development
  
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    poor banking system
    
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    no canals
    
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    crude roads
    
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    relied on the North
    
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  James B. D. De Bow
  
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    Louisiana resident
    
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    advocate of southern independence
    
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  Reasons for Colonial dependency
  
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    southern agricultural community was booming
    
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    wealthy southerners had too much capital invested in slaves
    
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    steamy climate
    
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  Cavalier image (manners, politeness, graciousness etc.) as opposed to Yankees
  
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    Planter aristocracy
    
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      only a small portion of slave-owners owned large numbers of them
      
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      controlled politics
      
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      thought of themselves as European aristocracy
      

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  “Honor”
  
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    Chivalry and defending ones honor became big
    
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      Conventional shows of respect and courtesy
      
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      Duels
      
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      Tied to the public appearance of dignity and authority
      
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      Brooks beat Sumner to defend his families honor making him a hero In the south
      
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    Defending honor was more a southern thing
    
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  The “southern lady”
  
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    The women became part of a man’s honor that he had to defend
    
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      Made men more dominant and women more subordinate
      
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      George Fitzhugh- women have on right: to be protected
      
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    Southern women as opposed to northern lived in isolated farms which no access to the public
    
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      Fewer opportunity beyond mother or wife
      
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      If they lived on a smaller plantation they could weave, spin
      
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      “Plantation mistress”
      
  • 
    Southern women had less access to education
    
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      Men did not bother to get them educated
      
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      The few women academies were to make women better wives
      
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    Higher birth rates, but half of all kids died before 5 years
    
  • 
    Men cheated on wives with slaves
    
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      Children had with slaves were then slaves and constant reminders to the wives of the infidelity
      
  • 
    Many discontent women could not find ways to speak out so accepted their position and convinced themselves it was beneficial to them
    
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      Others spoke out, joined abolitionists, moved north, etc...
      
• 
  The Plain Folk
  
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    Most of the southern population, “plain folk” only held land with a few slaves and had to live in closer quarters with them
    
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    Subsistence farmers “yeoman farmers”
    
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    Many did not have slaves
    
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    Could not better themselves
    
    • 
      Not many educational opportunities for poor whites
      
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    Question raised: “why didn't these plain folk rebel against the aristocratic society of the southern plantation owners?
    
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      Many who opposed were too isolated to gather a large force
      
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      Slavery did not benefit the small farms and blocked social mobility
      
  • 
    “Hill people”
    
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      The most isolated southerners lived in the Appalachian ranges east of the Mississippi, in the Ozark’s to the west of the river, and in other “hill country” or “backcountry” areas cut off from the commercial world
      
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      They shared the hate of slavery with northerners
      
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      Fervent loyalists and had a proud sense of being secluded
      
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      They in many cases supported the north, (against secession, helped fight with the union, did not support slavery)
      
  • 
    The small farm owners however had a dependence on plantations
    
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      Access to cotton gins, markets, credit
      
  • 
    Kinship connected the lower and upper class
    
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    Others felt tied by the strong sense of democracy
    
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      Debates, votes
      
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    Some felt secure in the yeomen farms
    
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    Committed to the paternalistic male dominated society
    
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      An attack on their way of life (slavery) would be an attack on their paternalistic domination
      
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    Stuck to tradition
    
  • 
    “White trash”
    
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      “Crackers” poor southerners who still accepted Cultural norm
      
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      Many were worse off than slaves
      
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      Foraged, hunted, labored, some had to resort to eating clay “clay eaters”
      
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      Dietary deficiencies lead to their degradation and disease spread
      
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      Too little strength to oppose the aristocracy
      
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      However poor off they were they still considered themselves the proud, dominant (white) race
      
    • 
      Felt tied to aristocracy by race
      

• 
  Limited Class Conflict
  
  • 
    among poor there is no real opposition to plantation system or slavery
    
  • 
    perception of race unites them: despite how poor they were, southern whites looked upon slaves and considered themselves the "ruling race"
    
  • 
    Frederick Law Olmsted: Northerner who visited south and wrote about southern society 1850s
    
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  Slavery: the Peculiar Institution
  
  • 
    S. Whites called slavery the "peculiar institution" because it was so separated from the rest of the world and society and because it was unusual
    
    • 
      sharp divisions, unusual relationships between owners and slaves (influenced one another)
      
• 
  Varieties of Slavery
  
  • 
    Legal Basis of Slavery: detailed laws and codes in South
    
    • 
      slaves forbidden to: hold property, leave owners property, be out after dark, to congregate and any other things
      
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      Some state laws forbade anyone from education of slaves etc.
      
    • 
      killing a slave was not a crime, yet any transgression by a slave pretty much meant a death sentence for him/her
      
  • 
    Reality of slavery: laws were spotty and often not enforced
    
    • 
      ranged from prison-like conditions to servant conditions
      
    • 
      on regular plantations (owners owned few slaves), owners and slaves worked alongside each other and formed relationships unknown to larger plantations
      
      • 
        paternal relationship
        
    • 
      most of slaves were on larger plantations: "head-drivers" (overseers) kept slaves "in order"
      
• 
  Task and Gang Systems: large planters usually used one of two methods for assigning slave labor:
  
  • 
    Task system: slaves were individually assigned a job, once they were done they were done for the day
    
  • 
    Gang System: slaves were divided into groups and worked as long as a head driver considered necessary
    
• 
  Life Under Slavery
  
  • 
    slaves were given stuff that would basically be just enough for them to work
    
    • 
      basic coarse diet (cornmeal, salt pork, molasses)
      
    • 
      basic clothing
      
    • 
      slave women did most of medical duties within community
      
  • 
    Special Position of Slave Women: women did both field chores with men as well as house chores (cooking, cleaning, child-rearing)
    
    • 
      families were often split up: single parent families (special authority)
      
  • 
    High Slave Mortality Rates: steady decrease in ratio of blacks to whites in South was partially due to high mortality rates forced upon them from bad quality of life
    
  • 
    few children survived into adulthood
    
    • 
      living conditions still better in some ways than northern factory workers
      
    • 
      conditions much better than Caribbean slaves conditions (sugar production)
      
    • 
      cotton was much less arduous to grow than sugar cane
      
  • 
    Owners take steps to improve conditions for slaves: don't start work until adolescent
    
    • 
      hired labor for worst jobs
      
    • 
      cost of hiring a worker and them dying vs. cost of a slave dying (1/1000)
      
  • 
    House Slaves: on larger plantations certain slaves were dedicated exclusively for housework (nursemaids, butlers, coachmen, house maids, cooks)
    
    • 
      sometimes have close familiar relations form
      
    • 
      however, more often house slaves were isolated from the rest, and their transgressions were more noticeable so they received more frequent punishments
      
      • 
        household slaves left plantations sooner than field slaves did after emancipation
        
  • 
    Sexual Abuse: female slaves often were forced into "consensual" relationships with overseers or owners etc.
    
    • 
      abuse from men as well as punishment from white women who were jealous of relationships their men formed with house slave women (arbitrary beatings, increased workloads)
      
• 
  Slavery in the Cities
  
  • 
    conditions differed significantly
    
    • 
      isolation from free blacks and lower-class whites on plantations
      
    • 
      the rigid control that owners employed created the impression that the chasm between slavery and freedom was impossible to overcome
      
    • 
      In the cities, slave owners had to give slaves some freedoms in order to run efficient businesses etc.