D. Translate the following text from Russian into English

D. Translate the following text from Russian into English.

Сегодня средства массовой информации играют огромную роль в жизни современного общества. Их роль в политических дебатах и общекультурном процессе, информационном обслуживании граждан и формировании ценностных установок аудитории общепризнанна. Экономика средств массовой информации является неотъемлемым, быстро растущим сектором национальных экономик, и как особая наука, позволяет понять закономерности функционирования медиа в их взаимоотношениях с бизнесом, государством, в конечном итоге с обществом в целом.

2. Notes

376. 
     I. Multiple Choice
     
377. 
     
     
378. 
     Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
     

379. 
     1. Social critic _____ believes that the mountains of data in modern life add to our problems instead of engendering thoughtful discussion among citizens.
     

380. 
     a. Jon Katz b. Neil Postman c. Herbert Gans d. Richard Jewell
     

381. 
     2. Timeliness, proximity, and prominence are all examples of criteria for _____.
     

382. 
     a. usefulness b. newsworthiness c. ethics d. none of the above
     

383. 
     3. News stories about issues that could affect a family's income or change a community's laws are stories of _____.
     

384. 
     a. consequence b. conflict c. prominence d. deviance
     

385. 
     4. One of the major values of journalism, _____, was adopted from the conventions of scientific study.
     

386. 
     a. conflict b. ethnocentrism c. neutrality d. newsworthiness
     

387. 
     5. Favoring the small over the large and the rural over the urban is also known as _____.
     

388. 
     a. small-town pastoralism b. individualism c. ethnocentrism d. responsible capitalism
     

389. 
     6. The ethical principle "the greatest good for the greatest number" was derived from the work of _____.
     

390. 
     a. Bentham and Mill b. Kant c. Locke d. Chiquita
     

391. 
     7. A conflict of interest is _____.
     
392. 
     
     
393. 
     a. A moral code that everyone must live by b. Ethical decision making on a case-by-case basis c. Any situation in which a reporter may stand to benefit personally from a story d. аll of the above

     8. To avoid conflicts of interest, in most cities journalists do not _____.

     
     

394. 
     a. reveal their political affiliations b. participate in politics c. support social causes d. all of the above
     

395. 
     9. "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" is also known as _____.
     

396. 
     a. the Golden Rule b. the categorical imperative c. the work of British philosophers Bentham and Mill d. none of the above
     

397. 
     10. The FBI's prime suspect in the bombing at the 1996 Olympics was _____.
     

398. 
     a. Immanuel Kant b. Richard Jewell c. Ted Koppel d. none of the above
     

399. 
     11. What nineteenth-century invention allowed news to be transmitted instantly?
     

400. 
     a. stenograph b. telegraph c. modem d. none of the above
     

401. 
     12. What is an example of one of the problematic aspects of "getting the story first"?
     

402. 
     a. Janet Cooke's fabricated report for the Washington Post b. the 1995 coverage of the O. J. Simpson trial c. Stories invented by Jayson Blair for the New York Times d. none of the above
     

403. 
     13. In the _____ style of reporting, journalists assume that leaders are hiding something.
     

404. 
     a. tough-question b. neutral c. expert-source d. none of the above
     

405. 
     14. The Pulitzer Prize often goes to the reporter who _____.
     

406. 
     a. publishes the most gotcha stories b. uses a tough-question style of reporting c. asks ethically charged and open-ended questions d. constantly searches for what politicians may be hiding
     

407. 
     15. Janet Cooke's fabricated investigative report for the Washington Post led to _____.
     

408. 
     a. a Pulitzer Prize, which was later revoked b. the imprisonment of a mother who contributed to the heroin addiction of her son c. Cooke's promotion at the paper d. all of the above
     

409. 
     16. Who hosted the 1950s game show What's My Line?
     

410. 
     a. John Daly b. James Agee c. Jack Swift d. Walter Cronkite
     

411. 
     17. _____, which often lead newscasts, are accounts of the worst criminal stories of the day.
     

412. 
     a. sound bites b. crime blocks c. news blocks d. happy talk
     

413. 
     18. Which of the following is a function of a news consultant, or news doctor?
     

414. 
     a. set the agenda for the types of stories reporters cover b. dictate how reporters look on air c. dictate how reporters act on air d. all of the above
     

415. 
     19. Forced chatter between anchors and reporters before and after broadcast news reports is called _____.
     

416. 
     a. a sound bite b. happy talk c. the partisan model d. all of the above
     

417. 
     20. Which of the following is NOT a function of public journalism?
     

418. 
     a. goes beyond "telling the news" to try to help public life go well b. goes beyond only describing what is "going wrong" to imagining hat "going right" would be like c. goes from being a fair-minded participant in public life to detachment and neutrality d. goes from seeing people as consumers to seeing them as participants in a democratic public
     

419. 
     21. News stories about speeches, meetings, crimes, or court cases that have just happened are written because those events _____.
     

420. 
     a. are timely b. are useful c. are novel d. none of the above
     

421. 
     22. Neutrality, derived from _____, has been adopted as a major value of journalism.
     

422. 
     a. art history b. scientific study c. politics d. all of the above
     

423. 
     23. When reporters assume that businesspeople compete with one another to create increased prosperity for all it is called _____.
     

424. 
     a. small-town pastoralism b. responsible capitalism c. ethnocentrism d. individualism
     

425. 
     4. Traditionally, _____ have been aligned with an objective position.
     

426. 
     a. values b. facts c. politics d. all of the above
     
427. 
     
     
428. 
     25. Sociologist _____ studied newsroom culture in the 1970s.
     

429. 
     a. Neil Postman b. Jon Katz c. Herbert Gans d. none of the above
     
430. 
     26. _____ promote ethical decision-making on a case-by-case basis.
     

431. 
     a. absolutist ethics b. situational ethics c. civil ethics d. none of the above
     
432. 
     
     
433. 
     27. Gathering quotes from victims at a hospital might be seen as _____.
     

434. 
     a. absolutist ethics b. invasion of a person's right to privacy c. conflict of interest d. all of the above
     

435. 
     28. Any situation in which a journalist may stand to benefit personally from a story is a _____.
     

436. 
     a. categorical imperative b. privacy issue c. conflict of interest d. none of the above
     

437. 
     29. Which of the following is a major moral code?
     

438. 
     a. Kant's categorical imperative b. the Golden Rule c. the greatest good for the greatest number d. all of the above
     

439. 
     30. Small newspapers with limited resources might accept _____ from local businesses or interview subjects.
     

440. 
     a. freebies b. ethical and philosophical guidelines c. free expression d. none of the above
     

441. 
     31. When journalism switched to a focus on the present in news content, the industry began to draw criticism for _____.
     

442. 
     a. not offering historical analyses of important issues b. limiting coverage to partisan politics c. using the telegraph to create instant news d. all of the above
     

443. 
     32. What are some of the benefits of relying on expert sources?
     

444. 
     a. creating conflict by pitting a series of quotes from experts against one another b. distancing journalists from the events and issues they are covering c. giving credibility to journalists by relying on outside authorities d. all of the above
     

445. 
     33. The abortion controversy is an example of an issue that has been turned into a _____ story, even though there are many different sides of the issue.
     

446. 
     a. two-dimensional b. neutral c. balanced d. none of the above
     

447. 
     34. Critics of the _____ of journalism claim that it fosters cynicism among journalists.
     

448. 
     a. tough-question style b. neutral style c. ethical style d. all of the above
     

449. 
     35. The boom in 24-hour cable news programs led to _____.
     

450. 
     a. an increased reliance on expert sources b. a news vacuum that is now filled with talk shows and interviews with journalists c. the creation of a new column by Mike Royko d. none of the above
     

451. 
     36. Which early television program influenced the style of modern programs like 20/20 and Dateline NBC?
     

452. 
     a. See It Now b. What's My Line? c. 60 Minutes d. none of the above
     

453. 
     37. A _____ is the TV equivalent of a quote in print news.
     

454. 
     a. crime block b. partisan model c. sound bite d. none of the above
     

455. 
     38. What are the two competing models that have influenced American and European newsrooms since the early 1900s?
     

456. 
     a. informational and modern b. partisan and European c. informational and partisan d. partisan and happy talk
     

457. 
     39. The current public journalism movement began in the _____.
     

458. 
     a. late 1980s b. early 1960s c. nineteenth century d. late 1990s
     

459. 
     40. What is deliberative democracy?
     

460. 
     a. a system in which we sit back and watch elected officials act on our behalf b. a system in which citizen groups, local government, and the news media work together to shape social and political agendas c. a system in which reporters are traditionally observers and recorders d. all of the above
     

461. 
     (http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mediaculture/pages/bcs-main.asp? v= chapter&s=14000&n=00040&i=14040.04&o=|00020|0003 0|00040|&ns=38)
     
462. 
     
     
463. 
     II. Summary
     
464. 
     
     
465. 
     Summary 1 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 14 titled "Modern journalism in the information age" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

466. 
     Modern journalism in the information age
     
467. 
     While the aim of modern journalism is to provide information that enables citizens to make intelligent decisions, we may be producing too much information. Social critic Neil Postman believes that scientists, technicians, managers, and journalists have merely piled up mountains of new data, adding to the problems of everyday life instead of engendering thoughtful discussion among citizens. Another problem is that the amount of information provided by the media has made little impact on improving public and political life, and many people feel cut off from our major institutions, including journalism. Many citizens are looking for ways to renew a democracy in which many voices participate. For example, one of the benefits of the 2000 presidential election was that its legal and political complications engaged the citizenry at a much deeper level than the predictable, staged campaigns did.
     

468. 
     What is news?
     
469. 
     Most journalists today are not comfortable thinking of themselves as storytellers, instead viewing themselves as information-gatherers. Most journalists and journalism texts define news by a set of criteria for determining newsworthiness, or information most worthy of transformation into news stories. These criteria include timeliness, proximity, conflict, prominence, human interest, consequence, usefulness, novelty, and deviance. Most issues selected as news are timely ‒ speeches, meetings, crimes, or court cases that have just happened. These events usually occur close by, or in proximity conflict, and reporters are encouraged to seek contentious quotes from those with opposing views when developing news narratives. Prominence and human interest also play a role in newsworthiness. The news media tend to report stories on powerful or influential people; however, they also look for human-interest stories ‒ extraordinary incidents that happen to "ordinary" people.
     

470. 
     Two other news criteria, found less often in news stories, are consequence and usefulness. Stories of consequence might be about issues or events that could affect a family's income or change a community's laws. Useful stories might contain practical advice, such as hints on buying a used car, choosing a college, or training a pet. Finally, news is often about the novel and the deviant. The news media are there for stories that are outside the routine of daily life, such as a seven-year-old girl trying to pilot a plane across the country. And reporters also cover events that deviate from social norms, such as murders, rapes, and political scandals.
     

471. 
     The criteria of newsworthiness do not reveal much about the cultural aspects of news. As a culture, news in the twentieth century became the process of gathering information and making narrative reports ‒ edited by individuals in a news organization ‒ that offer selected frames of reference. News helps the public make sense of prominent people, important events, and unusual happenings in everyday life.
     

472. 
     Neutrality and other values in American journalism
     
473. 
     While a news report is seldom scientific, one of the conventions of scientific study ‒ neutrality ‒ has been adopted as a major value of journalism. Even though journalists transform events into stories, they believe that they are ‒ or should be ‒ neutral observers who present facts without passing judgment on them. Journalists have created techniques such as the inverted-pyramid style of reporting, the careful attribution of sources, the minimal use of adverbs and adjectives, and a detached third-person point of view to help them maintain objectivity in their writing. In fact, many modern journalists believe that their credibility derives from personal detachment. However, as media critic Jon Katz points out, this neutrality actually stemmed from a marketing device. After newspapers began to mass market themselves, publishers mutated from journalists into businessmen, and they were eager to reach the broadest number of readers and antagonize the fewest. Objectivity helps protect the status quo and keep journalists' voices moderate. Neutral journalism remains a selective process. Sociologist Herbert Gans, who studied the newsroom cultures of CBS, NBC, Newsweek, and Time in the 1970s, generalized that several basic "enduring values" are shared by American reporters and editors, the most basic of these values being ethnocentrism, responsible capitalism, small-town pastoralism, and individualism. Ethnocentrism means that reporters judge other countries and cultures on the basis of how they live up to or imitate American practices and values. Responsible capitalism means that reporters sometimes assume that businesspeople compete with one another not to maximize profits but to create increased prosperity for all. Small-town pastoralism involves favoring the small over the large and the rural over the urban, or equating small-town life with innocence and harboring deep suspicions of cities and the daily urban experience. Individualism is the most prominent value underpinning daily journalism. There are many news stories written about individuals who overcome personal adversity. However, journalism that focuses on personal experience often fails to explain how large institutions work or fail.
     

474. Traditionally, facts have been aligned with an objective position and values with subjective feelings. Within this context, news reports offer readers and viewers details, data, and description, and it becomes the citizen's responsibility to judge and take a stand on the social problems represented by the news. As a result, many reporters view themselves as neutral "channels" of information rather than as citizens themselves actively involved in public life.

     
     
475. 
     
     
476. 
     1. Which of the following is not one of the criteria for determining newsworthiness?
     

477. 
     a. proximity b. prominence c. crime d. timeliness
     

478. 
     2. Human-interest stories can be described as _____.
     

479. 
     a. extraordinary incidents that happen to ordinary people b. events that deviate from social norms, such as murders or political scandals c. stories about powerful or influential people d. all of the above
     

480. 
     3. Which of the following techniques is used to help journalists maintain objectivity in their writing?
     

481. 
     a. inverted-pyramid style b. careful attribution of sources c. minimal use of adverbs and adjectives d. all of the above
     

482. 
     4. Which of the following is not one of the enduring values shared by American reporters and editors, according to Herbert Gans?
     

483. 
     a. ethnocentrism b. neutrality c. responsible capitalism d. individualism
     

484. 
     5. _____ means that reporters judge other countries and cultures on the basis of how they live up to or imitate American practices and values.
     

485. 
     a. responsible capitalism b. individualism c. ethnocentrism d. small-town pastoralism
     

486. 
     Summary 2 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 14 titled "Ethics and the news media" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

487. 
     Ethics and the news media
     
488. 
     In late April 1992, four Los Angeles police officers who had been charged with using excessive force against Rodney King, an ex-con who had led police on a high-speed chase through L.A. in 1991, were acquitted. The not-guilty verdict triggered fighting, looting, and arson in South Central Los Angeles, leaving fifty-eight people dead. Afterward, the federal government filed a civil suit against the four officers, charging them with deliberately depriving King of his civil rights. Before the civil case was tried, Ted Koppel broadcast a special Nightline show from South Central L.A., featuring interviews with gang members, church leaders, community activists, and neighbors. On the program, one older minister accused Koppel of pitting gang members against religious leaders to generate conflict for a more dramatic news show. Koppel was visibly uncomfortable and quickly changed the subject. His dilemma raises ethical questions about the responsibility of journalists.
     
489. 
     
     
490. 
     Ethical predicaments
     
491. 
     There are at least two major ethical positions: absolutist ethics and situational ethics. Absolutist ethics suggest that a moral society has laws and codes, including honesty, that everyone must live by. This means that everyone, including members of the news, should tell the truth at all times and in all cases. The ends (for example, exposing a phony clinic) never justify the means (for example, using deception to get the story). Situational ethics promote ethical decision making on a case-by-case basis. If a greater public good were served by using deceit, many journalists would sanction deception as a practice. Journalists know they can sometimes obtain information by posing as someone other than a journalist. While most newsrooms disapprove of deception, the practice is condoned in some situations if reporters and editors believe that the public needs the information.

     Journalists routinely straddle a line between the public's right to know and a person's right to privacy. For example, journalists may be sent to hospitals to gather quotes from victims or from relatives of people who have suffered some injury. Privacy issues also concern corporations and institutions. For example, in 1998 a reporter illegally gained access to the voice-mail system at Chiquita (a company best known for selling bananas) and used the information obtained to report on the company's business practices. Although journalism's code of ethics says, "The news media must guard against invading a person's right to privacy," this clashes with another part of the code, "The public's right to know of events of public importance and interest is the overriding mission of the mass media." When these two standards collide, journalists usually err on the side of the public's right to know.

     
     
492. 
     
     
493. 
     Journalists try to avoid conflicts of interest. A conflict of interest is any situation in which a journalist may stand to benefit personally from a story. The journalist's code of ethics warns that "gifts, favors, free travel, special treatment or privileges can compromise the integrity of journalists and their employers." Small newspapers with limited resources and poorly paid reporters might accept such freebies from local businesses or interview subjects, but most news outlets attempt to protect journalists from compromising positions. In most cities, journalists do not participate in politics or support social causes, and some even refuse to reveal their political affiliations or vote in elections. While some journalists feel that any tie to any group might compromise the reporter's ability to report on that group, other journalists believe that not participating in politics or social causes is tantamount to abandoning one's civic obligations.
     
     

494. 
     Ethical and philosophical guidelines offer a universal measure for testing individual values and codes. Some of the major moral codes are as follows. German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed the "categorical imperative," which argues that a society must adhere to moral codes that are universal and unconditional, applicable in all situations at all times. One example of this is the Golden Rule - do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Another ethical principle, "the greatest good for the greatest number," is derived from the work of British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. This principle directs us to "distribute a good consequence to more people rather than to fewer, whenever we have a choice." The Judeo-Christian command to "love your neighbor as yourself" also provides the basis for constructing ethical guidelines.

     Arriving at ethical decisions involves several stages, including laying out the case; pinpointing the key issues; identifying involved parties, their intent, and their competing values; studying ethical models; presenting strategies and options; and formulating a decision. The case of Richard Jewell, the Atlanta security guard who was the FBI's prime suspect in the bombing at the 1996 Olympics, raised several key ethical questions. Jewell was never charged with a crime, and he later successfully sued several news organizations for libel. Should the news media have named Jewell as a suspect even though he was never charged with a crime? Should they have camped out daily in front of his mother's house in an attempt to interview him and his mother? To defend their behavior, journalists might invoke their constitutional right to free expression or argue that their intent was to serve the public's right to know.

     
     
     1. _____ suggest that a moral society has laws and codes that everyone must live by.
     
495. 
     
     
496. 
     a. Situational ethics b. Absolutist ethics c. Conflict of interest d. none of the above
     

497. 
     
     
498. 
     2. What happened on the South Central Nightline that made Ted Koppel uncomfortable?
     

499. 
     a. gang members threatened him b. fifty-eight people started a riot c. a minister accused him of pitting gang members against religious leaders d. all of the above
     

500. 
     3. German philosopher _____ developed the categorical imperative.
     

501. 
     a. Jeremy Bentham b. John Stuart Mill c. John Locke d. Immanuel Kant
     

502. 
     4. Which of the following is not one of the stages of arriving at an ethical decision?
     

503. 
     a. laying out the case b. identifying involved parties c. pinpointing key issues d. accepting freebies
     

504. 
     5. _____, the prime suspect in the 1996 Olympic bombing, was never charged with a crime.
     

505. 
     a. Richard Jewell b. Immanuel Kant c. Jeremy Bentham d. none of the above
     

506. 
     Summary 3 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 14 titled "Reporting rituals and the legacy of print journalism" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
507. 
     
     
508. 
     Reporting rituals and the legacy of print journalism
     
509. 
     Focusing on the present
     
510. 
     During the nineteenth century, publishers figured out how to sell news more profitably as a product by using modern technology to cut costs. They also changed news content to appeal to the emerging middle and working classes, including more practical and everyday content because most new readers were not interested in the partisan politics that had characterized American journalism before the 1830s. Modern journalism was born with the advent of the telegraph, which allowed news to be transmitted instantly. To complement the new technical advances, modern editors called for a focus on the present in news content.
     
511. 
     
     
512. 
     With this new focus, journalism began to draw criticism for failing to offer historical analyses of important phenomena. Given the space and time constraints of current news practices, reporters seldom link stories to the past or the ebb and flow of history. For example, in the 1980s, urban drug stories dominated print and network news; these stories disappeared in the early 1990s, though the nation's drug problem had not diminished. Then, in the mid-1990s, when statistics revealed that drug use among middle-class high-school students was rising, reporters once again picked up the drug story. However, their reports made only limited reference to the 1980s.

     For most journalists, the bottom line of the job is getting a story. This sometimes leads to problems when the need for a compelling narrative overrides a reporter's social responsibility. For example, in the early 1980s, Janet Cooke, a reporter for the Washington Post, fabricated an investigative report that featured a mother who contributed to the heroin addiction of her eight-year-old son. Cooke won a Pulitzer for the article, which was later revoked when the hoax was exposed. Chicago columnist Mike Royko commented that "There's something more important than a story here. This eight-year-old kid is being murdered. The editors should have said forget the story, find the kid…. People in any other profession would have gone right to the police."

     
     
513. 
     
     
514. 
     Another important aspect of the job to journalists is getting the story first ‒ beating out competitors. The news-gathering process has become almost a game that journalists play. This became problematic in November 2000, as the major networks scrambled to project a winner in the presidential election and ended up flubbing their predictions regarding the outcome of voting in Florida. It is not always clear whether the public is better served by a journalist's claim to have gotten a story first. Though a story may be first to appear, early reports are not necessarily better than stories written days later with more context and perspective.
     

515. 
     Relying on experts
     
516. 
     Another ritual of modern print journalism ‒ relying on outside sources — has made reporters heavily dependent on experts. Because of the neutral nature of news stories, reporters must seek outside authorities to give credibility to their stories, even if the reporters themselves are experts by virtue of having covered certain areas for a long time. Reporters today act as public mediators, closing the widening gap that exists between citizens with expertise and those without it.
     
517. 
     
     
518. 
     Reporters also use experts to create narrative conflict ‒ pitting a series of quotes against one another. And the use of experts enables journalists to distance themselves from the events and issues they are covering. Journalists are required to make direct contact with a source, via phone, e-mail, or in personal interviews. Because of strict deadlines, many journalists end up using the same sources over and over, giving the impression that the world contains only a handful of knowledgeable people. In addition, expert sources have historically been predominantly white and male, though the 1995 coverage of the O.J. Simpson trials helped change this profile somewhat. As journalists have increased reliance on experts, they have alienated many readers who feel they no longer have a stake in day-to-day social and political life.
     

519. 
     By the late 1990s, many journalists were criticized for smudging the line between remaining neutral and being an expert. The boom in 24-hour cable news programs led to a vacuum that is now filled with talk shows and interviews with journalists. Some editors even encourage their reporters to go on these shows in the hope of selling more magazines and newspapers; however, critics contend that these practices erode the credibility of the profession.
     

520. 
     Balancing story conflict
     
521. 
     For most journalists, balance means presenting all sides of an issue without appearing to favor any one position. However, time and space constraints often make it impossible to present all sides, and many stories become two-dimensional. One example of this is the abortion controversy, often portrayed with two extreme positions (antiabortion vs. pro-choice). Yet many people are interested in the issue whose views do not fall at either end of the extreme spectrum.

     Also, the claim for balanced stories, like the claim for neutrality, disguises journalism's narrative function. Journalists often choose quotes that have more to do with enhancing drama than with being fair or establishing neutrality. The claim of balance is also in the financial interest of news organizations seeking out a middle ground.

     
     
     Acting as adversaries
     
522. 
     Journalists take pride in their adversarial relationships with prominent leaders and major institutions. This relationship is often portrayed by the gotcha story, which refers to the moment when the reporter nabs an evildoer. The tough-question style is also used frequently. In both these styles, journalists assume that leaders are hiding something and that the reporter's main job is to ferret out the truth through tenacious fact-gathering and gotcha questions. Critics of this style argue that it fosters a cynicism among journalists that may actually harm the democratic process. By constantly searching for what politicians may be hiding, reporters may miss other issues. Sometimes reporters believe they have done their job just by roughing up an interview subject; however, the Pulitzer Prize, journalism's highest award, often goes to the reporter who asks ethically charged and open-ended questions.
     
523. 
     
     
524. 
     1. How did publishers figure out how to sell news more profitably during the nineteenth century?
     

525. 
     a. by changing news content to appeal to the emerging middle and working classes b. by using modern technology to cut costs c. none of the above d. both a and b
     

526. 
     2. Who fabricated an investigative report for the Washington Post?
     

527. 
     a. Mike Royko b. Dave Barry c. Janet Cooke d. all of the above
     

528. 
     3. What are some of the problems with requiring journalists to use outside sources to give credibility to their stories?
     

529. 
     a. because of strict deadlines, reporters end up using the same sources over and over b. expert sources are often white and male c. readers who feel they no longer have a stake in day-to-day social and political life are alienated d. all of the above
     

530. 
     4. When a reporter nabs an evildoer in print, it is often referred to as a(n) _____.
     

531. 
     a. expert story b. gotcha story c. neutral story d. none of the above
     

532. 
     5. Why must reporters seek outside sources?
     
533. 
     
     
534. 
     a. because of the neutral nature of news stories b. because reporters have no expertise themselves c. because reporters do not want to be seen as public mediators d. none of the above
     

535. 
     Summary 4 Read the summaries of the sections of Chapter 14 titled "Journalism in the age of television" and "Conventional news, public journalism, and democracy" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

536. 
     Journalism in the age of television
     
537. 
     Conventional news, public journalism, and democracy
     
538. 
     In the 1950s, the rules and rituals of American journalism began to change. With the rise of television came the blurring of entertainment and information, which is a central criticism of journalism today. One example of this was when former radio reporter John Daly both hosted the CBS game show What's My Line? and moonlighted as the evening TV news anchor on ABC. Another trend to come out of the early age of television was the investigative model of reporting — an in—depth narrative form. CBS's See It Now was the most influential and respected news program of this type, and its narrative format helped spawn shows such as 60 Minutes, 20/20, and Dateline NBC.
     
539. 
     
     
540. 
     Differences between print and television news
     
541. 
     Television has transformed journalism in a number of significant ways. First, broadcast news is often driven by technology. For example, if a camera crew is dispatched to a remote location for a broadcast, reporters must justify the expense by developing a story, even if nothing important is happening at the time. Second, TV news directors must fit news in between commercials. Third, while print journalists are expected to be detached, much of the credibility of TV news depends on viewers' trust in the reporters and anchors who read the news, as well as from live, on-the-spot reporting. Viewers tend to feel a personal regard for local anchors, and since the early 1970s polls have shown that the majority of viewers find television more credible than print news.
     
542. 
     
     
543. 
     By the mid-1970s, local news departments, helped by public interest in the Watergate scandal and the improved quality of television journalism, started to realize profits. To retain high ratings and profits, stations began hiring consultants who advised news directors to invest in national packaged formats. These consultants also suggested that stations lead newscasts with crime blocks, or groups of stories that recount the worst criminal stories of the day. However, with the drop in crime and murder rates in most major urban areas in the 1990s, some stations have responded to viewers and critics who complain about the emphasis on crime in the news. In fact, the news directors at KVUE-TV in Austin, Texas, instituted standards that eliminated many routine crime stories in favor of providing a context for understanding crime stories.
     

544. 
     The sound bite, a term coined in the 1980s, is the TV equivalent of a quote in print news. It is the part of a news report in which an expert, celebrity, victim, or person-on-the-street responds in an interview to some aspect of an event or an issue. Sound bites have been criticized because studies revealed that the typical sound bite from a candidate had shrunk from an average of forty seconds in the 1950s and 1960s to fewer than eight seconds by the late 1990s. Sound bites are another example of the profession's reliance on storytelling devices (dueling sound bites) to create or replicate conflict.

     News consultants (also known as news doctors) set not only the agenda for the types of stories reporters cover but also how reporters look and act while they are on the air. The predominant image for reporters and anchors is young, attractive, pleasant, usually white, with no regional accent. There are many stories about reporters being fired for looking too old, gaining weight, or being generally unattractive. For example, in the early 1970s, a Milwaukee TV station anchor was replaced because consultants thought he looked too old and was showing a bit of gray. He was thirty-two years old at the time. Consultants also dictate on-air behavior, advocating happy talk, or scripted or ad-libbed banter between local news anchors and reporters before and after news reports. This forced chatter is supposed to create a more relaxed feeling on the news set and foster intimacy with viewers. This sometimes creates awkward transitions when anchors are reporting on tragic events.

     
     
545. 
     
     
546. 
     Visual language and critical limits
     
547. 
     In contemporary America, the shift from a print-dominated culture to an electronic-digital culture requires thoughtful scrutiny. Instead, the complexity of this shift is often reduced to a two-dimensional debate about information vs. entertainment. Television dramatizes America's key events, such as the civil-rights movement, which benefited enormously from the televised documentation of the plight of southern blacks in the 1960s. Other images are embedded in our collective memories, such as the Kennedy and King assassinations, the space shuttle disaster, the Clinton impeachment hearings, and the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001.
     
548. 
     
     
549. 
     However, a disturbing strategy stems from television news stories of the mid to late 1980s. While covering stories where police invaded crack cocaine houses, camera operators followed police into the houses, giving the impression that TV news actually represented the police's point of view in these cases. A profession that prides itself on neutrality did not question whether it was appropriate for reporters to tell these stories from a police viewpoint.
     

550. 
     Conventional news, public journalism, and democracy
     
551. 
     The two competing models that have influenced American and European newsrooms since the early 1900s are the informational or modern model and the partisan or European model. The informational model emphasized describing events from a neutral point of view. This model dominates American newspapers today. The partisan model stresses analyzing occurrences and advocating remedies from an acknowledged point of view.
     
552. 
     
     
553. 
     An alternative to these models is civic or public journalism, which can be defined as journalism that:
     
554. 
     · moves beyond "telling the news" to a broader mission of helping public life go well
     
555. 
     · moves from detachment to being a fair-minded participant in public life
     
556. 
     · moves beyond only describing what is "going wrong" to imagining what "going right" would be like
     
557. 
     · moves from seeing people as consumers to seeing them as potential actors in arriving at democratic solutions to public problems.

     The impetus behind public journalism is the realization that many citizens feel alienated from participating in public life in a meaningful way. This alienation stems in part from watching passively as the political process plays out in the news media. While modern journalism advocates reporter detachment over community involvement, public journalism is driven by citizen forums, community conversations, and even talk shows.

     
     
558. 
     
     
559. 
     The current public journalism movement began in the late 1980s. When Columbus, Georgia, suffered from a depressed economy, an alienated citizenry, and unresponsive leadership, a team of reporters from the Columbus Ledger-Enquirer published an eight-part series on the future of the city. When the provocative series received little response, the paper's leadership realized there was no outlet for public discussion on the issues raised in the series. The paper created a forum by organizing a town meeting and a follow-up cookout at the home of the paper's editor, Jack Swift. A concerned group of citizens formed, with Swift as a leading member. The Columbus project generated public discussion, involved more people in the news process, and eased race and class tensions by bringing various groups together in public conversation.
     

560. 
     By the late 1990s, more than a hundred newspapers, many paired with local television and radio stations, practiced a form of public journalism. However, some critics are concerned that public journalism undermines journalism's traditional role as a neutral watchdog. These critics also raise a number of other issues. First, critics say that public journalism merely panders to what readers want and takes editorial control away from newsrooms. Second, critics worry that public journalism might compromise the profession's credibility, which derives from detachment. Third, some reporters and editors argue that public-journalism projects remove their control over both stories and the writing process. Fourth, critics say that public journalism undermines the both-sides-of-a-story convention by constantly seeking common ground and community consensus. And finally, public journalism is seen by many traditional reporters as merely a tool of marketers and news managers.
     

561. 
     Democracy and reimagining reporting's role
     
562. 
     Though most reporters have traditionally seen themselves as observers and recorders, some have acknowledged the need for social responsibility within the profession. James Agee, a reporter in the 1930s, wrote Let Us Now Praise Famous Men, which portrayed conventional journalism as dishonest, partly because of its intrusiveness on people's lives. Agee also worried that readers would retreat into the comfort of his narrative instead of confronting the horror of the Great Depression.
     
563. 
     
     
564. 
     Public journalism at its best promises to reinvigorate both reporting and politics. Advocates of public journalism claim that news and democracy suffer when reporters are chiefly concerned with maintaining their antagonistic relationship to politics. Washington Post columnist David Broder believes that national journalists have distanced themselves from the people they are writing for, and that journalists need to become more active in the political process. This might involve spearheading voter-registration drives or setting up pressrooms in public libraries or in shopping malls.
     

565. 
     Public journalism aims to improve our standard representative democracy, in which we sit back and watch elected officials act on our behalf, by reinvigorating deliberative democracy, in which citizen groups, local government, and the news media work together to shape social and political agendas. In a deliberative democracy, a large segment of the community discusses public life and social policy before advising or electing officials who represent the community's interests.
     

566. 
     Whatever the cause, mainstream journalism seems to have lost touch with its partisan roots. The early mission of journalism, which was to advocate opinions and encourage public debate, has been relegated to alternative magazines, the editorial pages, and cable news channels. Public journalism and other civic projects offer citizens and journalists a return to these roots, but also give them a chance to deliberate and to influence their leadership. Journalists' role in this process might include broadening the story frames they use to recount experiences; paying more attention to the historical context of the stories; doing more investigative reports that analyze both news conventions and social issues; taking more responsibility for their news narratives; and participating more fully in the public life of their communities.
     
567. 
     1. Who wrote Let Us Now Praise Famous Men?
     

568. 
     a. James Agee b. Jack Swift c. John Daly d. Dan Rather

     2. Which of the following is NOT a way in which television has transformed journalism?

     
     

569. 
     a. broadcast news has become driven by technology b. broadcast news directors must fit news in between commercials c. broadcast news has become more partisan d. while print journalists are expected to be detached, the credibility of broadcast news depends on viewers trusting anchors and reporters
     

570. 
     3. News consultants are also known as _____.
     

571. 
     a. news reels b. news doctors c. news directors d. none of the above
     
     
     
572. 
     4. What disturbing strategy popped up in television news stories of the mid to late 1980s?
     
573. 
     
     
574. 
     a. happy talk b. the partisan model c. public journalism d. news stories presented from a police viewpoint
     

575. 
     5. The _____ of news describes events from a neutral point of view.
     

576. 
     a. informational model b. partisan model c. European model d. all of the above
     

577. 
     (http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mediaculture/pages/bcs-main.asp? v= chapter&s=14000&n=00040&i=14040.04&o=|00020|000 30| 00040|&ns=38)
     

578. 
     
     
579. 
     Review the sections "Modern journalism in the Information Age", "Ethics and the news media", "Reporting rituals and the legacy of print journalism", "Journalism in the age of television" and "Conventional news, public journalism, and democracy" in your textbook. When you are ready, write a brief paragraph-length response to each of the questions that follow.
     

1. 
   Describe the criteria that determine newsworthiness.
   
2. 
   Describe the four basic "enduring values" shared by American reporters and editors according to Herbert Gans's study of newsroom cultures.
   
3. 
   Explain the differences between absolutist ethics and situational ethics.
   
4. 
   List the stages of ethical decision making.
   
5. 
   What are some of the criticisms of journalists' reliance on expert sources?
   
6. 
   Describe journalists' adversarial relationship with prominent leaders and major institutions.
   
7. 
   Describe the two competing models that have influenced American and European newsrooms since the early 1900s.
   
8. 
   Define and explain public journalism.
   

1. 
   What do these charts tell you about the rise of public journalism?
   
2. 
   What does each of these charts tell you about the way journalists view their jobs?
   
   
   

1. Explain why the public journalism movement began.

1. 
   This photo reminds us of the "pack" journalism mentality that has followed the Olsen twins since they were very young. What other examples of news stories that were covered by the pack can you think of?
   
2. 
   What ethical predicaments are caused by journalists stalking a story such as the hospitalization of Ashley Olson?
   
   
   
   Questions
   

1. 
   What does journalism's code of ethics say about privacy, and how does this clash with another part of the journalist's code?
   
2. 
   What are some of the major moral codes that can stand as guidelines for testing individual values?
   

2. 
   
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