D. Translate the following text from Russian into English

1. 
   
   
2. 
   I. Multiple Choice
   
3. 
   
   
4. 
   Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
   

5. 
   1. What is the second stage of media development?
   

6. 
   a. development stage b. novelty stage c. entrepreneurial stage d. mass medium stage
   

7. 2. What was the early name for the Internet?

   
   

8. a. Telnet b. The Government Network c. ARPAnet

   
   
9. 
   d. World Wide Web

   3. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Internet?

   
   

10. a. it is controlled by a single authority b. it is a distributed network c. it does not get clogged at a single point d. it has no central power switch

    4. Which of the following was NOT an early use of the Internet?
    

11. a. research b. bulletin boards c. multimedia sharing d. e-mail

    
    
    
    
12. 
    5. The development of the Internet was initiated by ____.
    

13. a. students at UCLA b. scientists c. the U.S. government d. none of the above

    
    
14. 
    
    
15. 
    6. Which quality of the Internet is NOT distinct from other mass media?
    
16. 
    a. it is interactive b. it allows individuals to create and distribute messages without barriers c. it is dominated by commercial interests d. it converges many other media in one place
    
17. 
    
    
18. 
    7. Which technological innovation allows the Internet to serve as a mass medium?
    

19. a. digital communication b. micro technology c. fiber-optic cable d. all of the above

    
    
20. 
    
    
21. 
    8. What term describes the phenomenon of traditional media content appearing on newer mass media?
    

22. a. separation b. media mapping c. media convergence d. integration

    
    
23. 
    
    
24. 
    9. Which is NOT a system for navigating and mapping the Internet?
    

25. 
    a. Internet Service Providers b. the World Wide Web c. CD-ROM d. search engines
    

26. 
    10. The Web uses _____ so that all computers can read a given web page.
    

27. 
    a. Java b. HTML c. Unix d. ISP
    

28. 
    11. AT&T and ______ joined to bring telephone service over cable systems in 1999.
    

29. 
    a. Disney b. Microsoft c. Time Warner d. Yahoo!
    

30. 
    12. Modern business organizations are best described as _______.
    

31. a. for profit b. egalitarian c. democratic d. autonomous

    13. If current trends prevail, critics predict that those with ______ will control most of the information highway.
    

32. 
    
    
33. 
    a. experience b. money c. knowledge d. none of the above

    14. Software developed by a group of amateur hackers and programmers is called ______.

    
    

34. a. shareware b. multi-software c. coded software d. none of the above

    15. In 2000, the ICANN created several new _____.
    

35. a. ISPs b. host sites c. domain names d. Web portals

    16. Urban myths and other misinformation spread unchecked through the Internet because there is no _______ to monitor information.
    

36. a. gatekeeper b. censorship c. law d. arbiter

    
    
37. 
    
    
38. 
    17. A profile that is attached to web users and is then used to track their surfing habits is called a ______.
    

39. a. tag b. web ID c. cookie d. none of the above

    
    
40. 
    
    
41. 
    18. By the year 2000, ____ percent of all Web sites were collecting some type of personal information.
    

42. a. 50 b. 97 c. 78 d. 43

    
    
43. 
    
    
44. 
    19. What 1996 act allowed most regional and long-distance phone companies to participate in cable- and Internet-access business?
    

45. a. Information Act b. Telecommunications Act c. Cable Act d. Phone Act

    
    
46. 
    20. The four fair practice principles developed by the Federal Trade Commission are ____
    
47. 
    
    
48. 
    a. warning, privacy, information, and choice b. freedom, disclosure, information, and choice c. disclosure, choice, access, and security d. disclosure, security, protection, and notice
    
49. 
    
    
50. 
    21. What is the final stage of media development?
    

51. 
    a. commercial stage b. mass medium stage c. entrepreneurial stage d. marketing stage
    
52. 
    
    
53. 
    22. What is the correct order of the three stages of media innovation?
    

54. a. entrepreneurial stage, development stage, mass medium stage b. development stage, mass medium stage, entrepreneurial stage c. development stage, entrepreneurial stage, mass medium stage d. mass medium stage, entrepreneurial stage, development stage

    
    
55. 
    
    
56. 
    23. Which of the following is NOT one of the early ways of data sharing among communities on the Internet?
    

57. a. newsgroups b. e-mail c. chat rooms d. bulletin boards

    24. Who controls the Internet?
    

58. a. government agencies b. there is no central control c. users d. corporations

    25. An early version of the Internet was called _____.
    

59. a. World Wide Web b. Gopher c. High-Speed Network d. ARPAnet

    
    
60. 
    
    
61. 
    26. The convergence of various methods of communication has had the most impact on which of the following?
    
62. 
    a. television stations b. telephone companies c. cable services d. radio stations
    
63. 
    
    
64. 
    27. Digital technology reads images and text as a series of ________.
    
65. 
    
    
66. 
    a. electric impulses b. ones and zeros c. numbers from one to ten d. none of the above
    

67. 28. The advent of the ____________ allowed for the development of personal computers.

    
    

68. a. fiber-optic cable b. modem c. microprocessor d. hypertext

    29. Content that uses audio, text, and video elements is commonly referred to as ________.
    

69. a. converged content b. HTML c. multimedia d. hypertext

    30. Which of the following is NOT classified as an Internet service provider?
    

70. a. America Online (AOL) b. Yahoo! c. EarthLink d. Microsoft Network (MSN)

    
    
71. 
    
    
72. 
    31. In 2000, AOL acquired _________ in one of the largest media corporation mergers to date.
    

73. a. AT&T b. Disney c. NBC d. Time Warner

    
    
74. 
    
    
75. 
    32. Which of the following was one of the domain names created in 2000?
    

76. a. .edu b. .com c. .org d. .info

    
    
77. 
    
    
78. 
    33. What does ICANN stand for?
    
79. 
    a. International Cable News Network b. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers c. Internet Companies for Accessing National News d. International Corporation of American Network News
    
    
80. 
    34. As more companies merge into media conglomerates, the ____ of the Internet becomes a concern.
    

81. a. size b. reliability c. freedom d. none of the above

    35. Who was the Internet's major operator until the late 1980s?
    

82. a. college communities b. small businesses c. the government d. NASA

    36. The Internet allows what type of communication?
    

83. a. point-to-point b. few-to-many c. many-to-many d. all of the above

    37. Unlike past media forms, the Internet has escaped most attempts at ________.
    

84. a. censorship b. advertising c. commercialism d. criticism

    
    
    
85. 
    38. What are cookies NOT used for?
    

86. a. tracking a user's Web surfing habits b. tracing a user's actions on a specific site c. gathering information in a user's Web directory d. none of the above

    
    
87. 
    
    
88. 
    39. The contrast between those with Internet service and those without is dubbed _____.
    

89. a. media convergence b. the digital divide c. the information theory d. data discrepancy

    
    
90. 
    
    
91. 
    40. "Spam" e-mail, widely-circulated urban myths, and incorrect news reports on the Internet are all consequences of a lack of ______.
    

92. 
    a. gatekeepers b. senders c. receivers d. convergence
    
93. 
    
    
94. 
    (http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mediaculture/pages/bcs-main.asp ?v = chapter&s=14000&n=00030&i=14030.02&o= |00020|00030 |&ns=0)
    
95. 
    
    
96. 
    II. Summary
    
97. 
    
    
98. 
    Summary 1 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 2 titled "Origins of the Internet" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
    

99. 
    Much like the frontier of the Old West, the information highway is uncontrolled and full of possibilities. Many critics believe that, unlike other mass media, the Internet is "ungovernable." Though it is difficult to predict to what extent the Internet will affect society, millions of people are now connected to it — 61 percent of U.S. households by 2002 — and it is safe to say that we are currently experiencing a media revolution and a new era.
    

100. 
     The evolution of a new mass medium
     
101. 
     The Industrial Age lasted from the development of the steam engine in the 1760s to mass assembly-line production in the 1900s. We are now firmly entrenched in the Information Age, a new era in comparison with what has come before. The Information Age began with the emergence of mass media such as the telegraph and radio, which grew as nations tried to send information over distances and exert military and economic controls. The Information Age is now marked by a convergence of these media types. In the past, the appearance of mass media has commonly been dictated by cultural, social, political, and economic circumstances. Under normal conditions, new media develop in three stages: the novelty or development stage, the entrepreneurial stage, and the mass medium stage. The first stage begins when inventors like Thomas Edison set out to solve a specific problem, such as how to record and play back sound. The second stage begins when marketable uses, like a way to play back music using the new device, are explored. The final stage is reached when the device, such as a record, is presented to the public and becomes a product used in homes and offices. The Internet has reached the mass medium stage, with 165 million people in the United States and 460 million people worldwide using it regularly.
     
102. 
     
     The birth and growth of the Internet
     
103. 
     The Internet has military origins similar to those of the national highway system, which was planned in the 1950s to ease the transport of military vehicles in case of emergency. The Internet began in the late 1960s in an attempt to increase the security of government and military communication lines. ARPA, the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency, began work on a prototype of today's Internet called ARPAnet. This early system allowed computer users to share data via e-mail and online bulletin boards. Because it used a distributed network, communications would not get clogged at a single point, and the system was less vulnerable to technical problems, natural disasters, or military attack. Computer researchers, scientists, and educators soon began using the Net as a useful tool for sharing research and data. Due to the nature of a distributed system, the Internet has developed with no central authority; no one person controls the Net, no one can kick others off it, and there is no central power switch. In 1982, the National Science Foundation invested in a high-speed network, used to connect several computers nationwide. With this, the Internet entered its relatively short entrepreneurial stage, led by scientists, researchers, and commercial interests. With the number of Internet users doubling each year in the 1990s, the Internet has definitely reached the mass medium stage of development. The current Internet system is made up of more than 150,000 separate regional computer networks and more than 120 million hosts, or servers, which are run by universities, corporations, and government agencies. The Internet allows users to find information on many topics.
     
104. 
     
     
105. 
     1. The metaphor that has been used for describing the nature and potential of the information age is ______.
     

106. 
     a. cyberspace b. freeway c. communication d. frontier
     

107. 2. By the year 2002, more than ____ of American households were connected to the Internet.

     
     

108. a. 50 % b. 60% c. 75% d. 90%

     3. What is the first stage of media development?
     

109. a. primary stage b. novelty stage c. entrepreneurial stage d. early stage

     4. What does the Defense Department's ARPA stand for?
     

110. a. Advanced Research Projects Agency b. Advanced Research and Profit Assessment c. Association of Records and Paramilitary Accounts d. Agency Records and Public Accounts

     
     

111. 5. The Internet reached its entrepreneurial stage in the early _____.

     
     

112. a. 1990s b. 1980s c. 1960s d. 1950s

     
     
113. 
     
     
114. 
     Summary 2 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 2 titled "Information access on the Internet" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

115. 
     The information highway has quickly shown itself to be different from past forms of media. It is characterized by the convergence of media, and three attributes of the information highway set it apart. First, it is an interactive medium, allowing multiple opportunities for feedback and participation by users. For example, readers of an online newspaper can e-mail letters to the editor, who can easily respond in kind or post many letters since there is no space limit online, as there is in a print publication. Second, it allows a wide variety of traditional media forms to be seen and manipulated on a single computer monitor simultaneously. A user can read an article, view the accompanying picture, and listen to a sound bite and interview all in the same place. Finally, the Internet allows users to create and distribute messages at only a fraction of the cost of traditional media such as television and newspapers. It is easier for individuals to become producers rather than consumers of media products.
     

116. 
     Technology breakthroughs and converging media
     
117. 
     The convergence of media and communication methods on the Internet ideally allows all consumers and producers of content to operate on an equal basis. The distinction between linear or point-to-point communication and mass communication has blurred. Three advances in technology have allowed this convergence of media to occur. First, the development of digital communication reduces all data, be it sound, image, or text, to a series of ones and zeros. This allows a common language ‒ binary code ‒ made up of bits of information to be used by all computers. Second, microtechnology, particularly microprocessors and the computer chip, has allowed for the development of personal computers by integrating thousands of transistors and related circuitry into thin strands of circuitry. Computer chips continue to become faster and smaller ‒ according to Moore's Law, the power of computer chips nearly doubles every eighteen months. Finally, fiber-optic cable, made up of thin glass bundles of fiber, has provided the rapid transfer of digital information that much of today's Internet uses. Information is sent by lasers shooting pulses of light.
     
118. 
     
     
119. 
     Media convergence and content accessibility
     
120. 
     The digital revolution allows for near-instantaneous access to a variety of media types. Users can quickly access the day's news, video clips of a sporting event, and chart-topping songs, all from their computer. The appearance of these traditional media in digital format is known as convergence. Multimedia content, which mixes content types, makes different content available all at once. For example, some Web sites such as ESPN.com offer text, images, video, and live radio feeds. To match the types of media available, there is an increasingly large number of storage methods available to consumers. Zip disks, CD-ROMs, CD-Rs (recordable), CD-RWs (rewritable), and most recently DVDs (digital video disc) provide enough space to save and manipulate the various types of media found on the information highway.
     
121. 
     
     Mapping the Internet
     
122. 
     Initially, the Net was an unorganized web of information, with no efficient way to navigate the content. Beginning with the World Wide Web, five major mapping systems were developed to sort, organize, and provide a map to the Internet: World Wide Web, Internet Service Providers, browsers, search engines/directories, and instant messaging services. Developed in the early 1980s, the World Wide Web began as a text-based linking system. From there, hypertext was developed, which allows the linking of text, images, and other media to a specific set of commands entered by the programmer. The Web uses HTML (HyperText Markup Language) so that all computers can read a given Web page. There were over 22.2 million Web sites in 2000. Commercial Internet Service Providers (ISPs) stepped into the picture, providing Internet connections from home. Among a number of competitors, America Online is the largest in the United States and has grown even larger with a controversial merger with Time Warner; other ISPs include MindSpring and Prodigy. By July 2002, 61 percent of U.S. households had Internet access from home. Browser software such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Communicator provides the interface for the user's exploration of the Net. The myriad of search engines and directories available today catalogue the information on the Internet so it is available for topic and key word searches. Browsers work in one of three ways: with a catalogue of sites (used by Yahoo! and Lycos); with computer "spider" programs that visit and record site data (used by AltaVista and HotBot); and with engines that rate the popularity of sites based on how many other pages link to them (used by Google). One of the latest innovations, instant messaging services (IM), is a perfect example of how communication is changing. Users can carry on several conversations at once; share links, music, and other media; and invite several users in to chat. Many companies, such as the market-leading AOL, Microsoft, and Yahoo, are actively competing in this market, since users tend to stay on their IM pages for long periods.
     
123. 
     
     
124. 
     1. Which of the following is NOT an example of convergence?
     

125. 
     a. television Webcasts b. online newspapers c. Internet newsgroups d. online radio stations
     

126. 2. The information highway has blurred the boundaries between point-to-point communication and ______.

     
     

127. a. mass communication b. media convergence c. telecommunication d. feedback

     
     
128. 
     
     
129. 
     3. Which of the following is NOT true about digital technology?
     

130. 
     a. All types of media are read in the same way b. Bits are pieces of digital information c. CDs store information digitally d. Early computers did not implement binary code
     

131. 
     4. Data is converted into pulses of light when being sent through _______.
     

132. 
     a. copper wire b. phone lines c. fiber-optic cable d. a computer modem
     

133. 
     5. What does DVD stand for?
     

134. 
     a. Digital Video Disc b. Downloaded Video Disk c. Direct Video Data d. Digital Versatile Disk
     
135. 
     
     
136. 
     Summary 3 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 2 titled "Ownership issues on the Internet" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

The information age is set apart not only by the convergence of media, but also by the convergence of media-owning companies. As was true of the film and auto industries in the past, several major media companies, including Disney and AOL, are scrambling to control as much of the information highway as possible. In the wake of the 1996 Telecommunications Act, many phone companies also deal in cable and Internet-access businesses. Telephone giant AT&T made moves to become a one-stop communications company as it acquired cable companies such as TCI and Media One and the content and Internet companies Excite and Excite@Home. AT&T made a deal with Time Warner to offer telephone service in thirty-three states. The cost of these mergers hobbled the company, however, and AT&T announced in 2000 that it would break into separate cable, wireless, business services, and long-distance companies. In one of the largest media mergers ever, Time Warner and AOL joined forces in the year 2000, creating the world's largest media conglomerate. With the Internet a relatively new medium, the scarcity of regulation has permitted a rapidly growing number of mergers, buyouts, and consolidations.

By 1994, several noncommercial groups (such as universities) that once ran regional computer hubs had sold rights to manage their services to private corporations, and the companies and institutions with the money for new technological developments began to control many of the roads on the information highway. The assigning of domain names in the 1990s brought government back into the picture. Finding a need for domain names beyond the original .com, .net, .org, and .edu, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) assigned several new names like .biz, .info, .name, and .aero as domain extensions. Internet2 (I2), a new system that is much faster than the current Internet, is likely to undergo even more privatization.

The very nature of the Internet ‒ free, egalitarian, and decentralized ‒ is at odds with the structure of modern business ‒ for profit, hierarchical, and systematized. The Internet is essentially free, equal, and uncontrolled. It is the nature of the medium that has kept it from being controlled by any one organization; it was not designed to be efficiently managed. Small groups of people, such as hackers and file traders, maintain the ability to impact large organizations.

Despite the fact that major corporations and other private interests are vying for Internet control, independence is alive and well on the information highway. Thanks to industrious programmers and hackers, there continues to be open-source, or noncommercial, software available. The open-source software Linux, created by programmers over the past decade, may soon rival Microsoft's operating system. This software, originally established by Linus Torvalds in 1991, has evolved through the efforts of computer enthusiasts around the world and has been embraced by major computer companies; it is in operation on many behind-the-scenes computer servers.

a. .net b. .com c. .org d. .info

a. hierarchical b. proprietary c. egalitarian d. organized

4. IBM, Dell, Sony and other large computer manufacturers have embraced open-source ____ as a secure and inexpensive alternative to Microsoft's operating systems.

5. Open-source software refers to software that is ___.

a. free to users b. programmed by several people c. noncommercial d. all of the above

137. 
     Summary 4 Read the summaries of the sections of Chapter 2 titled "Free expression, security, and access" and "Citizens, the Internet, and democracy" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     

Three issues about the Internet have led to much debate: questionable content, online security, and the accessibility of the Internet. The questions rising from these debates are still unanswered and will likely be at the center of public and private discussions of the Internet for years to come.

Just as there was attempted censorship of other media in the past, politicians and public interest groups have pushed for legislation to help control content on the Web, including the Communications Decency Act in 1996 and the Children's Online Protection Act in 1998. However, all efforts have thus far been ruled unconstitutional, and the information highway remains largely uncensored. There have been attempts at self-regulation: some companies provide filtering devices for removing inappropriate language from certain sites or newsgroups, and services like America Online permit parental restrictions to be imposed on younger users.

The safety of private information has been a concern online since the early days of personal computers. Fears of government surveillance have been heightened since the passage of the USA Patriot Act a month after the September 11th attacks, granting law enforcement agencies more eavesdropping and data collection powers. Several well-publicized cases have proven that hackers can access personal information; nevertheless, with many companies promising secure Web sites, online purchasing has increased steadily, from $3 billion in 1997 to $20-$33 billion in 1999, and it is expected to grow to $199 billion by 2005. But just as companies promise to protect their users from hackers, they scramble to collect as much consumer information as they can. "Cookies" ‒ information profiles about a Web user that are stored on the user's own hard drive ‒ are one of the most common ways to track users' Web surfing habits; cookies can tell companies where users have gone on their site, what information users have in their Web directories, and what other sites users visit. In 1998, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission did try to protect consumers with four fair practice principles of online privacy: disclosure, choice, access, and security. However, with no power to enforce them, the principles have been largely ignored. As of 2000, 97 percent of Web sites collect personal information but only 20 percent implement the four principles. Lack of transparency regarding opt-in and opt-out policies has rendered them almost ineffective protection for consumers.

The information age has begun to create a digital divide between "information haves" and "information have-nots." For example, in the year 2000, households with incomes over $100,000 represented a disproportionate percentage of households online, while a greater percentage of white Americans used the Internet than African Americans. Some communities and organizations are now making an effort to provide some type of free Internet access to those who cannot afford to pay for it. But despite the name, the World Wide Web has yet to become a medium equally available to the entire globe. A handful of countries account for most Internet use; the national governments in some countries limit access; and the telecommunication networks in some countries make accessing the Internet difficult. Finally, in some countries, phone lines and electric power are almost nonexistent. If the Internet continues on its present path of development, information may become the next divider between classes and among countries.

While the Internet can be praised as a truly decentralized medium for the masses, the lack of gatekeepers can create some problems. False information is passed from user to user with the same speed as accurate data, with little to distinguish one from the other. In contrast to traditional media, there is no editorial function on the Internet. Internet hoaxes and urban legends are common. This decentralization does allow a multitude of communication models to exist. E-mail provides one-to-one communication, Web sites provide a few-to-many model, and mailing lists support a many-to-many communication model. Just as happened in older media such as radio, as the number of Internet users increases exponentially, large companies like AT&T will fight even harder to tame the medium. The Internet will be hard to regulate given that 75 percent of households in the United States and Canada are projected to be connected by 2005. But while private interests gain more control over information, new technologies like MP3 and better video streaming will allow users to continue participating in a largely democratic manner. It has yet to be seen how practices such as mass customization—Internet content aimed at a particular consumer and exemplified by portals such as My Yahoo! ‒ will affect the Web surfing experience, but it is clear that the information highway will continue to change the way media are perceived. Old boundaries between print, electronic, and digital media are disappearing, and mass communication will continue to evolve.

a. decrease to $1.5 billion b. stay about the same c. increase to almost $50 billion d. increase to almost $200 billion

a. convergence b. cookies c. mass customization d. information harvesting

138. 
     III. Text reviewing
     
139. 
     
     
140. 
     Review the sections "Origins of the Internet "," Information access on the Internet", "Ownership issues on the Internet", "Free expression, security, and access" and "Citizens, cyberspace, and democracy" in your textbook. When you are ready, write a brief paragraph-length response to each of the questions that follow.
     

1. Mass media traditionally emerge through three stages. Use the development of the Internet to briefly describe what takes place during the development, entrepreneurial, and mass medium stages.

2. How does media convergence distinguish the current era of media and mass communication from the past?
3. How are ownership issues on the Internet similar to or different from past ownership issues in media?

4. What are the perceived threats to free speech and democracy on the Internet?

2. Demand for public Internet access has risen enough to warrant consumer Internet access at truck stops, hotels, stores, and airports. Who pays for this equipment? Who benefits from it?

1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of a centralized network?

a. centralized b. decentralized c. distributed d. none of the above

3. What are the major advantages that a distributed network has over the other two network models?