Corbicula an annotated bibliography 1774 2005

The feasibility of using the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774), for monitoring point source discharges has been evaluated. Clams were transplanted into cages at several locations around the outfall of a proposed waste treatment plant in the Sacramento San Joaquin Delta, California. Reproduction, shell growth, condition index (ratio of tissue weight to shell length), survival, and copper and zinc tissue concentration were evaluated for ten months. In addition, at one test site, the reproduction, growth, and condition index of a wild clam population was also determined. Comparison of sublethal parameters between the wild and caged clams demonstrated no significant difference (P>0.10). Initiation of the operation of the proposed waste treatment facility was delayed and thus the study includes only predischarge data. However, in June, there was a strong settlement of the barnacle, Balanus improvisus, on the monitoring cages and clams. Barnacle fouling appeared to produce a clam stress gradient as a simultaneous decrease in clam reproduction, condition index (P<0.05), and survival (P<0.05), but not growth (P>0.1), with increased fouling, was recorded. The seasonal pattern of the estuary for C. fluminea's copper and zinc tissue concentration was also determined. Metal concentration increased in the summer independent of both the clam's gut content and alterations in its biomass. In conclusion, it is believed that the technique reported may represent, with more work, a promising method for simultaneously monitoring alterations in clam tissue concentration and sublethal impacts.

Foe, C. and A. Knight. 1986. A thermal energy budget for juvenile Corbicula fluminea. IN: Proceedings of the Second International Corbicula Symposium, J. C. Britton, Ed. American Malacological Bulletin Special Edition No. 2. pp. 143 150.

A thermal energy budget was developed for immature Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774) at 16, 20, 24, and 30^oC. Water filtration rate at these temperatures was 2.80, 3.85, 5.33, and 13.39 ml/mg dry wt/hr. Respiration rates were 0.39, 0.56, 0.71, and 0.85 ìlO²/mg dry wt/hr. Assimilation efficiency was 48, 51, 36, and 13%, and activity levels were 98.9, 90.1, 95.1, and 8.0%, respectively. These rates have been combined to form a scope for growth model which predicts optimal clam growth near 20^oC, negative growth above 29^oC, and high tissue growth at temperatures as low as 16^oC. Growth measured in the laboratory at two degree increments between 16 and 32^oC. Tissue growth at each temperature was 6.2, 6.8, 6.9, 5.8, 4.9, 3.0, 1.4, and  0.52 mg dry wt/month, respectively. All experimental animals died when evaluated at 32^oC. these results are discussed in terms of current knowledge about C. fluminea's thermal tolerance and life history.

Foe, C. and A. Knight. 1987. Assessment of the biological impact of point source discharge employing Asiatic clams. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 16(1):39 51.

Three thousand Corbicula fluminea were transplanted for six months along a stress gradient produced by the thermal discharge of a power plant to ascertain whether C. fluminea could be used to monitor the biological impact of point source discharges. Water temperature at the warmest site (station 1) was between 25 and 35^oC, 7 to 13^oC above that in the river. Almost complete clam mortality was recorded here within 60 days. Water temperature at the next cooler site (station 2) was elevated 0.5 to 2.0^oC above ambient river temperature (stations 3 and 4). Adult and juvenile clam shell and tissue growth and condition index was less here than at sites 3 and 4 where all three parameters were similar. A one time measurement of juvenile clam scope for growth (SFG) also demonstrated a decreasing trend along the thermal gradient. SFG was positively correlated with juvenile clam shell and tissue growth but not with condition index.

Foe, C. G. 1985. The Effect of Temperature, Suspended Sediment and Food on the Growth of Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Davis. 91 pp.

Laboratory experiments were conducted with algal and artificial food to ascertain a suitable diet for Corbicula fluminea. Clam lost weight on all artificial food, however, weight losses were less than that of unfed control clams (p<0.05). All trialgal combinations of Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and Ankistrodesmus and a dialgal culture of Chlamydomonas and Chlorella resulted in positive tissue growth. Cultures of Selenastrum were toxic and their filtrate inhibited clam filtration.

An energy budget was developed for Corbicula fluminea at 16, 20, 24, and 30^oC. Filtration was 2.80, 3.85, 5.33, and 13.39 ml/mg dry wt/hr, respiration was 0.39, 0.56, 0.71, and 0.85 ìlO²/mg dry wt/hr, assimilation efficiency was 48, 51, 36, and 13%, and activity levels were 98.8, 90.1, 95.1, and 8.0% at each temperature, respectively. These rates were combined in a scope for growth model to predict optimal clam growth near 20^oC, negative growth above 29^oC, and high tissue growth at temperatures as low as 16^oC. Growth was measured in the laboratory at two degree increments between 16 and 32^oC. Tissue growth was 6.2, 6.8, 6.9, 5.8, 4.9, 3.0, 1.4, and  0.52 mg dry wt/month, respectively. All clams died at 32^oC.

Finally, experiments were conducted to ascertain the effect of suspended sediment and phytoplankton concentration on clam growth. Clams were cultured at 15.3^oC in the laboratory on eight combinations of suspended sediment and phytoplankton. Sediment concentrations were 2.6, 25, 50, and 150 mg/L. Chlorophyll a levels were 15.6 and 62.5 ìg/L. Tissue growth was independent of silt concentration but increased at higher chlorophyll levels (p<0.05). The growth experiment was repeated at 25^oC with chlorophyll a concentrations of 18.9 and 112.6 ìg/L. Growth was again greater at the higher phytoplankton level (p<0.05). These results suggest that Corbicula fluminea populations are food limited in California's Sacramento San Joaquin Delta as chlorophyll a levels are routinely less here. Comparisons of clam growth in the laboratory and estuary support a food limitation hypothesis as tissue growth was 2.3 and 3.8 times greater in the laboratory during the high and low temperature evaluations than in the estuary.

Foehrenbach, J. 1973. Eutrophication. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 45:1237 1244.

The use of Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774) as a biological filter to remove algae hydroxyl apatite suspensions is discussed in relation to studies on eutrophic waters.

Foehrenbach, J. and D. Raeihle. 1984. A further range extension of the Asiatic clam. New York Fish and Game Journal 31(2):224 226.

Corbicula fluminea is reported from Massapequa Lake, Long Island, New York from collections made in February 1983. It is noted that the clams have been in the lake since about 1977. Valves of C. fluminea were found in Bellmore Lake located near the original site of discovery. It is noted that the bivalves have been imported from California for use in oriental restaurants in the New York City metropolitan area.

Foighil, D. O., T. Lee and S. Siripattrawan. 2001. Invasion of the clonal clams: Corbicula in the New World. Freshwater Mollusks Conservation Society 2001 Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 11-14 March. Paper No. 79.

Foighil, D. O., T. Lee and S. C. S. Siripattrawan. 2001. Invasion of the clonal clams: Corbicula in the New World. World Congress of Malacology, Vienna (Austria), 19-25 Aug 2001. Institute of Zoology, University of Vienna, Institute of Paleontology, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft.

Fontanier, C. E. 1982. The distribution of Corbicula (Bivalvia: Corbiculidae) in the Brazos River System. Texas Journal of Science 34(1):5 16.

Formica Corsi, A. 1900. Molluscos de la Republica Orientale del Uruguay. Annales de Museo Nacional 2(15 17):1 237.

Foster, R. B. 1981. Use of Asiatic clam larvae in aquatic hazard evaluations. IN: Ecological Assessments of Effluent Impacts on Communities of Indigenous Aquatic Organisms, J. M. Bates and C. I. Weber, Eds. American Society Testing Materials. pp. 280 288.

Investigative efforts to predict the potential impact of single chemical species or mixed effluents on natural waterways emphasize laboratory studies of sensitive nonindigenous aquatic organisms reared under controlled laboratory conditions. Integrated aquatic hazard evaluations appropriately require species representative of a number of trophic levels   algae, invertebrates, and fish   and different ecological niches   benthic versus pelagic, sessile versus mobile. The oyster embryo toxicity test is often applied in hazard evaluations and is a useful measure of water quality in marine and estuarine environments. Parallel methods have been developed in which freshwater Asiatic clam larvae (Corbicula sp.) are used to measure the relative toxicity of industrial chemicals. Two applications, the benthic acute lethality test and the larval transformation toxicity test, are presented. The results compared with other representative aquatic species of fish and invertebrates show that these applications are appropriately sensitive to industrial chemicals. Based on the simplicity and utility of these methods, the author recommends that these and other Asiatic clam monitoring techniques be adopted as tools for assessing the impact of effluents on freshwater aquatic environments.

Foster, R. B. and S. W. Box. 1976. Procedures for evaluating chemical control of larval Asiatic clams. Paper presented at the 24th Annual Meeting of the North American Benthological Society, La Crosse, Wisconsin, 24 26 March. [Abstract]

To secure enough animals to test the efficiency of chlorine as a molluscicide, a method was developed using larvae removed directly from the gills of adult Corbicula. Larvae separated in this manner supplied sufficient organisms for multiple tests (n > 20/concentration). Individual spawns, two to three weeks long, were extended an additional two weeks using artificial substrata in culture aquaria. Larvae survived removal and developed through the benthic stage in 6 10 days).

Subsequent molluscicide evaluations established baseline responses for "pre charged" stage larvae. Variations in larval response were attributable to the wide latitude of tolerances exhibited by the distinct marsupial larval stages. Although similar LC₉₀ values were observed after 24 hours' exposure, the required time to mortality increased with larval shell development. Planktotrophic larvae are more resistant than the preceding stages of marsupial development. Observations indicate that the techniques are suitable for screening tests in attention is given to the predominant larval stage isolated from the marsupium.

Fournier, E., C. Adam, J. C. Massabuau and J. Garnier-Laplace. 2005. Bioaccumulation of waterborne selenium in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea: influence of feeding-induced ventilatory activity and selenium species. Aquatic Toxicology 72(3):251-260.

A set of experiments was performed to investigate the bioavailability and the effect of Se on the ventilatory activity of the bivalve Corbicula fluminea, under different conditions of both algal cell densities and dissolved Se chemical forms and concentrations. A first set of experiments was conducted without selenium to investigate the changes in the ventilatory flow rate as a function of the concentration of the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (10⁵ - 10⁶ cells mL^-1). For algal concentrations below 2-10⁵ cells mL mL^-1, ventilatory activity was highly stimulated whereas it was independent of algal densities for higher values (up to 10⁶ cells mL mL^-1). To investigate the influence of this first ventilatory drive on selenium contamination process, bivalves were exposed to waterborne selenium at two different algal concentrations, selected to provide contrasting reference ventilatory activities. Three different selenium forms were studied [selenite Se(+IV), selenate Se(+VI) and selenomethionine SeMet] and were added into the water at concentrations of 50 and/or 500 mu gL super(-) super(1). Each selenium form induced a specific behavioural response, an increase, a decrease or no change of ventilation being observed for Se(+IV), SeMet and Se(+VI), respectively. Selenium accumulation by the organisms was investigated at the organ level for the different exposure conditions. Selenomethionine was the most bioaccumulated form, followed by selenate and selenite, respectively. Despite the bivalves displaying different ventilatory behaviours at low or high algal density, there was no evidence showing reduction or enhancement of Se uptake in the chemical domain investigated.

Fournier, E., D. Tran, F. Denison, J.-C. Massabuau and J. Garnier-Laplace. 2004. Valve closure response to uranium exposure for a freshwater bivalve (Corbicula fluminea): Quantification of the influence of pH. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23(5):1108-1114.

Laboratory experiments were carried out to analyze the first valve closure response of a freshwater bivalve (Corbicula fluminea) exposed to uranium during a 5-h period. Experiments were performed in a well-defined artificial water at two pH values, 5.5 and 6.5, with a noninvasive method of valve recording. Sensitivity thresholds, based on percentage of bivalve that close their valves in a given time, were determined. Response thresholds depended on the total uranium concentration, integration time of response (fast responses could only be observed for the highest concentrations), and pH. The bivalve is much more sensitive to total uranium concentration at pH 5.5 than pH 6.5. The minimal sensitivity threshold determined, expressed as the uranium concentration inducing the valve closure of 50% of the bivalves, was 0.05 mu mol/L at pH 5.5 after 5 h of exposure. Moreover, higher concentrations of the free ion UO₂²⁺ are required at pH 5.5 than at pH 6.5 to illicit the same response. Two hypotheses can be proposed, that UO₂²⁺ is not the only detected species or that competition exists between H⁺ and UO₂²⁺ for binding sites.

Fox, R. O. 1969. The Corbicula Story: a progress report. Second Annual Meeting, Western Society of Malacologists. 11 pp.

A review of the invasion of United States waters by Corbicula. Zoogeography, habitats, ecology, taxonomy, and systematics are discussed. The history of the invasion by these bivalves is reviewed with a discussion of possible means of introduction.

Fox, R. O. 1970. The Corbicula Story: chapter two. Third Annual Meeting, Western Society of Malacologists. 10 pp.

An update on the invasion of United States waters by Corbicula is presented. The use of Corbicula as a fish bait in California as well as possible control strategies are discussed.

Fox, R. O. 1970. Corbicula in Baja California. The Nautilus 83(4):145.

Fox, R. O. 1971. The Corbicula Story: chapter three. Fourth Annual Meeting, Western Society of Malacologists. 5 pp.

An annual update on the invasion of United States waters by Corbicula. New records are listed. The history of the Chinese immigrants in the western states and their possibly introducing the species is discussed.

Fox, R. O. 1971. Have you met Corbicula   the fresh water invader? The Tabulata, 1 January 1971:3 4.

A popular review of the history of the invasion of the United States by Corbicula with notes on habitat, ecology, zoogeography, and biofouling.

Fox, R. O. 1972. The Corbicula Story: chapter four. Fifth Annual Meeting, Western Society of Malacologists. 5 pp.

An annual update on the invasion of North American waters by Corbicula.

Fox, R. O. 1973. The Corbicula Story: chapter five. Sixth Annual Meeting, Western Society of Malacologists. 4 pp.

An annual update on the invasion of North American waters by Corbicula.

Franzen, A. 1983. Invasion av asiatisk sotvattenmussla i USA: Ett hot mot svenska kylvattenutslapp. Fauna och Flora 78:1 6. [In Swedish with an English summary]

A short review is given of the morphology and life history of the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774). This clam has now been reported from at least 33 states in the United States. The clam causes plugging in cooling water systems in nuclear power plants, hydroelectric stations and other industries. In canals and rivers deposits of sediments of living and dead clams are accumulated and cause great economic damage. The deposits may be at least up to about 6 feet thick. If C. fluminea is spread to Sweden there is a risk that the clam could cause similar severe infestations.

Frauenfeld, G. R. von. 1869. Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Zoologich Botanischen Gesellschaft Wien 19:853 900.

Fraysse, B., J.-P. Baudin, J. Garnier-Laplace, C. Adam and A. Boudou. 2002. Effects of Cd and Zn waterborne exposure on the uptake and depuration of ⁵⁷Co, ^110mAg and ¹³⁴Cs by the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) and the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)--whole organism study. Environmental Pollution 118(3):297-306.

Groups of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) and asiatic clams (Corbicula fluminea) were exposed to cadmium and zinc with the aim of studying the effect of these metals on the ⁵⁷Co, ^110mAg and ¹³⁴Cs uptake and depuration by these freshwater bivalves. In the presence of zinc, the ⁵⁷Co concentration factor for the whole organism of the two species was halved, notably because of a decrease of the uptake parameter. Conversely, Zinc and the Cd + Zn mixture increased the ^110mAg uptake process by clams and mussels. he two metals also increased the depuration of this radionuclide in mussels, whereas this phenomenon was only observed in clams exposed to cadmium. In comparison with ⁵⁷Co and ^110mAg, the ¹³⁴Cs bioconcentration was 5-10 times lower in D. polymorpha and not detected in C. fluminea. This weak contamination by this radionuclide resulted from a lower uptake and a higher depuration parameters.

Fraysse, B., J.-P. Baudin, J. Garnier-Laplace, A. Boudou, F. Ribeyre and C. Adam. 2000. Cadmium Uptake by Corbicula fluminea and Dreissena polymorpha: Effects of pH and temperature. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 65(5):638-645.

Cadmium is a well-known environmental contaminant that affects aquatic environments. To monitor this pollutant and its bioavailability in freshwater ecosystems, the use of bioindicators, such as bivalves, is particularly well suited. However, prior experimental studies are required in order to determine the characteristics (transfer kinetics and level) of the contamination to the organisms. Two species were selected, the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) and the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha). By reason of theirs ecological and physiological features (particularly a high filtration rate), these two species are very suitable as heavy metal bioindicators as shown by ecotoxicological studies Graney et al. 1983; Kraak et al. 1991; Merch, 1993; Claudi and Mackie 1994; Inza 1996). In addition, for monitoring the aquatic environment these two species are complementary, since they differ in habitat requirements. C fluminea is a benthic infaunal species, whereas D. polymorpha is an epilithic species. The species also differ in optimal temperature for growth and reproduction, 14-22^oC for C. fluminea and 8-16^oC for D. polymorpha (Claudi and Mackie 1994). One of the particularity of C. fluminea is to feed off by the suspended matter presents in the water column, as D. polymorpha, and also by the sediment particles by pedal feeding (Way and Hornbach 1990). The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of pH and temperature on the accumulation and distribution of cadmium in the soft tissues of the two molluscs.

French, J. R. P., III and D. W. Schloesser. 1988. Asiatic clams (Corbicula fluminea ) in the St. Clair River. 31st Conference on Great Lakes Research, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 17-20 May.

French, J. R. P. and D. W. Schloesser. 1991. Growth and overwinter survival of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea, in the St. Clair River, Michigan. Hydrobiologia 219:165-170.

In April 1986, the first population of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea, was discovered in the lotic environment of the Laurentian Great Lakes system. This population occupied a 3.8 km long sandy shoal in the discharge plume of a steam-electric power plant on the St. Clair River (Michigan), as outflow of Lake Huron. Samples collected April 1986 to April 1987 revealed the growth of one-year-old Corbicula (1985 cohort) began after mid-May and ended by mid-November, while water temperatures were higher than 9^oC. Maximum growth (0.78 mm/wk) occurred between mid-August and mid-September, while water temperatures were about 16-23^oC. A substantial overwinter mortality was recorded in the 1986 cohort was recorded, but not the 1985 cohort; this was particularly evident at sampling locations more remote from the heated discharge of the powerplant, suggesting low water temperature was the major mortality agent. The available information suggests that the low temperatures in the St. Clair River may limit the success of Corbicula in the river, including portions of populations inhabiting thermal plumes, by reducing growth, delaying the onset of sexual maturity and reproduction, and causing heavy overwinter mortality in the first year of life.

French, J. R. P., III and D. W. Schloesser. 1996. Distribution and winter survival health of Asian clams, Corbicula fluminea, in the St. Clair River, Michigan. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 11(2):183-192.
The distribution and winter survival of the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea, was studied in the St. Clair River from the fall of 1988 to the spring of 1990. Between fall of 1988 and spring of 1989, distribution of Corbicula was extended from 5.5 to 11.5 km downstream from an electric power plant. However, total abundance of clams decreased during the winter. By fall of 1989, Corbicula was found 14.5 km from the power plant, and the mean density of clams was 27 individuals/m². Between fall of 1989 and spring of 1990, distribution was reduced to 7.5 km from the power plant and abundance decreased 97%. During the winter of 1988-1989, clams were collected monthly from one station 2.2 km from the power plant, and it was observed that clams survived the harsh winter for two months after the water temperature dropped about 1.5^oC below the reported lethal level for Corbicula in midwinter. During the winter of 1989-1990, we held clams at the sediment-water interface in enclosures, and we observed that condition indices (dry body weight:dry shell weight) of clams remained stable (mean = 0.05 ± 0.01) in December and January and then declined significantly (p < 0.05) to 0.04 plus or minus 0.01 in February. All clams perished by late March. The deteriorating physiological state of clams, as indicated by declining condition index, seemingly is a factor in late winter mortalities of Corbicula in the St. Clair River. In contrast to the rapid geographic spread and population increases in the southern United States, Corbicula likely will not spread rapidly throughout the Great Lakes beyond shoreline thermal refugia of heated-water discharge plumes from power plants.

Freneix, S. 1980. Bivalves neocretaces de Nouvelle Caledonie. Signification biogeographique, biostratigraphique, paleogeographique. Annales Paleontologie (Paris) 66(2):67 135. [In French with an English summary]

Freneix, S. 1981. Faunes de bivalves du Senonien de Nouvelle Caledonie: analyses paleobiogeographique, biostratigraphique, paleoecologique. Annales Paleontologie (Invertebres) 67(1):13 32. [In French with an English summary]

The biogeographic phyletic relations of the Bivalvia species (including Corbicula garnieri [Freneix, 1980] emphasize the permanence, during the lower Campanian (or Piripauan) of the Maorian paleobioprovince in a perigondwanian faunal palaentarctic realm. The biofacies are significant of an evolution from an instable brackish estuarian or marine environments, with high energy level, to euhaline muddy bays, under more calm and restricted conditions.

Frischer, M. E., A. S. Hansen, J. A. Wyllie, J. Wimbush, J. Murray and S. A. Nierzwicki-Bauer. 2002. Specific amplification of the 18S rRNA gene as a method to detect zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) larvae in plankton samples. Hydrobiologia 487(1):33-44.

An important issue in the management of zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) populations is early, rapid, and accurate detection of the planktonic larvae (veliger) of the zebra mussel. The goal of this study was to explore the feasibility of developing a molecular approach for the detection of zebra mussel larvae in diverse environments. In this study a Dreissena polymorpha-specific 18S ribosomal RNA gene targeted oligonucleotide primer (ZEB-715a) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assay was developed and compared with cross-polarized microscopy as a means to detect zebra mussel veligers in plankton samples. The design of the zebra mussel-specific primer was facilitated by sequencing nearly the complete 18S rRNA gene from the zebra mussel and three other closely related freshwater Veneroids including the quagga mussel (D. bugensis), the dark false mussel (Mytilopsis leucophaeata), and the Asian freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea). The specificity of the primer for the zebra mussel was empirically tested by using the primer as a direct probe in a blot hybridization format. A single veliger in a plankton sample could be detected by PCR using this approach. Veliger detection sensitivity using the PCR approach was estimated to be over 300 times more sensitive than cross-polarized light microscopy based techniques. Cross-polarized light microscopy and the PCR technique were used to identify the presence of zebra mussel larvae in plankton samples that were collected from a variety of natural and industrial water sources. Detection results (presence or absence) were generally consistent between the two methods. Although additional studies will be required before routine application of molecular based veliger detection technology is available, a long-term goal of this work is the application of molecular technology to the development of a field device for the routine detection and quantification of zebra mussel veligers.

Fritz, L. W., G. Ferrence and T. R. Jacobsen. 1992. Induction of barite mineralization in the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea. Limnology and Oceanography 37(2):442-448.

Barite crystals were formed on the inner shell surface in 1 week by specimens of Corbicula fluminea exposed to dissolved Ba concentrations of 140-559 μg/liter. Prevalences of barite crystals increased directly with initial Ba concentrations over the course of a 28-d experiment. Barite crystals were not observed on the shell exteriors of any clams analyzed. Results suggest that Ba was concentrated by C. fluminea and periodically purged from the soft tissues into the extrapallial fluids, where it heterogeneously coprecipitated with aragonite on the inner shell surface.

Fritz, L. W., G. Ferrence, T. R. Jacobsen and R. A. Lutz. 1989. Biomineralization of barite by Corbicula fluminea. Journal of Shellfish Research 8(2):483.

Barite crystal rosettes were discovered on the inner depositional surface of the inner complex crossed-lamellar shell layer of specimens of Corbicula fluminea, collected live from populations in the Maurice River, NJ. A barium exposure experiment was conducted using 200 clams collected from the Delaware River, where no barite rosettes had been previously observed. The Delaware River has approximately half the level of dissolved Ba as the Maurice River (50 μg/l). Organisms exposed to the 2 highest Ba concentrations formed barite crystals across the entire inner shell surface. No barite rosettes were observed on the inner shell surface of organisms in the time = 0 sample, after 4 weeks in well-water, nor on the shell exterior of any experimental or control specimen. Results suggest that Ba uptake was proportional to the level of exposure to dissolved Ba, and that Ba was eliminated from tissues into the extrapallial fluid and shell, where it crystallized as the non-biologically active mineral, barite.

Fritz, L. W. and R. A. Lutz. 1984. Assessing effects of environmental pertubation through analysis of Corbicula (cf fluminea) shell microstructure. American Malacological Bulletin 3(1):100 101. [Abstract]

See below.

Fritz, L. W. and R. A. Lutz. 1986. Environmental perturbations reflected in internal shell growth patterns of Corbicula fluminea (Mollusca: Bivalvia). The Veliger 28(4):401 417.

Anthropogenic and natural seasonal environmental perturbations were reflected in shell growth pattern of specimens of Corbicula fluminea living at the northernmost extent of their range along the east coast of North America (Raritan River, New Jersey). Growth of organisms in experimental cages was monitored from August 1981 to January 1982 and from July to December 1982 at stations located upstream (controls: 2 stations) and immediately downstream (perturbed: 1 station) from a combined industrial sewage effluent. In 1981, the growing shell margin of each clam was notched with a small drill before each was placed in a cage, these marked organisms were sacrificed after various lengths of time. In 1982, specimens were not notched, but a growth cessation mark in the shell microstructure of all caged organisms marked the beginning of the monitored growth period. Growth patterns in shell microstructure were examined in acetate peels and polished thin sections. Microgrowth increments in the outer crossed lamellar layer were deposited at an average rate of approximately one increment per day. A growth cessation mark found in all specimens sampled in 1981 (n = 53) was dated to within two days of a major storm using increment counts, revealing the accuracy of their use to date shell regions. Lack of growth in winter resulted in growth discontinuity in the inner complex crossed lamellar layer and an associated growth cessation mark in the outer layer. Increment counts suggested that growth resumed in late March or early April each year as water temperatures rose above approximately 10^oC. Growth rates of 1+ year old individuals during spring and early summer (before entering experimental cages) average 65 and 45 ìm/increment in 1981 and 1982, respectively. In 1981, growth rates at each site were significantly slower during the monitored growth period than before it, which was probably due to injury inflicted by notching the ventral shell margin. In 1982, growth rates of unnotched clams at the control sites were similar before and after entering the experimental cages (after an initial two week decrease in growth rates). However, unnotched specimens moved to the perturbed site in 1982 subsequently grew at significantly slower rates and had fewer increments during the monitored period than those collected from cages at control sites.

Fritz, L. W., L. M. Ragone, and R. A. Lutz. 1988. Pores in the shells of Corbicula fluminea. Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries Association 78(1):208. [Abstract]

Shells of Corbicula fluminea collected from the Delaware and Maurice rivers, New Jersey, contain small (4 10 ìm in diameter) pores near the umbo that contain thin processes of the mantle epithelium. Many, but not all, of the pores were bifurcated and traversed the entire thickness of the shell in regions where the periostracum and outer complex crossed lamellar shell layer were eroded away. Pore walls were not composed of the cone complex crossed lamellar microstructure of the inner layer, but were instead formed of columnar prisms. Shell pores, and presumably the thin mantle processes associated with them, were more numerous and covered a larger percentage of the inner surface of the inner layer in shell collected from a site in the tidal freshwater portion of the Maurice River (where there was extensive erosion/ dissolution of the outer surface of the shells near the umbo) than from either of the two other sites, one each of the Delaware and Maurice rivers (where there was considerably less shell erosion/dissolution).

Fritz, L. W., L. M. Ragone, R. A. Lutz and S. Swapp. 1990. Biomineralization of barite in the shell of the freshwater Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Limnology and Oceanography 35(3):756-762.

Rosette-shaped clusters of barite crystals were found on the depositional surface and in the inner, complex crossed-lamellar shell layer of Corbicula fluminea collected from the Maurice River, New Jersey. Morphological analyses revealed that barite crystallized directly from the extrapallial fluid onto the inner shell layer in summer and was covered by inner shell-layer aragonite in fall. Ba, S, and Sr were detected in energy-dispersive X-ray analyses of rosettes, while X-ray diffraction of the heavy fraction of finely ground shells revealed the presence of a barite mineral composed of similar to 75 mol% Ba SO₄ and 25 mol% SrSO₄. It is suggested that barite formation resulted from the purging of soluble Ba from the tissue into the extrapallial fluid where it crystalized onto the shell in a biologically inert form.

Fritzsche, C. H. 1924. Neue Kreidefaunnen aus Sudamerika. IN: Beitrage zur Geologie und Palaontologie von Sudamerika, G. Gustave, Ed. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaontologie (Stuttgart) 50:1 56.

Fuchs, V. E. 1936. Extinct Pleistocene Mollusca from Lake Edward, Uganda and then bearing upon the Tanganyika problem. Linnean Society Journal, Zoology 40:269.

Fuji, A. 1955. Some ecological aspects of Zyusan Gata with special reference to the habitats of Corbicula japonica group. Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries, Hokkaido University 5:(4):313 319.

Generally, in this inlet the water is <1.5 m and the humus content is poor and such areas form favorable clam fields. Corbicula japonica Prime, 1864, is dominant followed by Anisogammarus kygi and Neospheroma oregonensis. Motomura's correlation coefficient method was used for the discussion of benthic communities. There were 3 communities defined as follows: 1) Those that receive the influence of sea water and dominated by A. kygi and N. oregonensis; 2) Those areas affected more by fresh water and dominated by C. japonica, and; 3) Those areas that have few benthic organisms and substratum composed of mud and abundant organic humus. In Zyusan gata, the commercial fishery exploits Yamatosizimi (C. japonica).

Fuji, A. 1957. Changes in tissue chloride and physiological activity of the brackish water bivalve, Corbicula japonica, in response to variations in salinity. Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries, Hokkaido University 8(3):163 177.

Chloride variations in Corbicula japonica Prime, 1864, tissues were noted in field studies to be more directly affected by interstitial chloride of sediments than by the chloride content of the overlying water. Shell movements and water filtration rate, when used as a measure of physiological activity, suggested a disturbance of these activities at high chloride concentrations, but a chloride ratio of roughly 1:2 was demonstrated between the tissue chloride of C. japonica and the chloride concentration of the surrounding medium during a gradual change from fresh to moderately saline water. C. japonica required an adjustment time of 8 12 hours to maintain this ratio in abrupt changes in environment from fresh to dilute sea water.

Fuji, A. 1957. Growth and breeding season of the brackish water bivalve, Corbicula japonica, in Zyusan Gata Inlet. Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries, Hokkaido University 8(3):178 184.

In the absence of distinct growth marks, the shell size frequency distribution was used to obtain growth estimates of the age and growth rate. The entering year class appeared in July and it was deduced from this and from the tissue weight coefficient of adult Corbicula that spawning occurs from late July to late August with a peak in early July. The water filtration rate was found to increase linearly with increasing water temperatures between 5   30^oC. Corresponding to this, rapid growth during warm months and negligible growth from November to March was indicated by shifts of monthly values of each normal distribution in shell height groups which represented year classes 0 to 3.

Fuji, A. 1979. Phosphorus budget in natural population of Corbicula japonica Prime in poikilohaline lagoon, Zyusan ko, Japan. Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries, Hokkaido University 30(1):34 49.

The P flow through the natural population of Corbicula japonica Prime and the lagoon water surrounding the in the poikilohaline lagoon of Zyusan ko, Aomori Prefecture, was studied from August 1974 to August 1975. The average discharge of the Iwaki River, which was the major contributor of river water flowing into the lagoon, was estimated at 19.3x10⁸ m³/yr. The annual input of P from the river was 2900, 1700 and 2600 mg/m³ in dissolved inorganic, dissolved organic and particulate P. A rough estimation of water exchange between lagoon water and coastal water is equivalent to 370x10⁴ m³/day, and the tentative rate of mixing between both water masses is calculated at approximately 70%. Quantitative values of P added by the coastal water (mg P/m²/yr) were: phosphate 700; dissolved organic 400; particulate 400. P utilization by photosynthesis reaches about 1500 mg/m²/yr; this value is the representation of the amount of particulate P produced by P uptake for the annual production of phytoplankon from the lagoon water. The clam population removed 681 mg P/m²/yr of particulate P, of which 520 mg P/m²/yr was ingested as food and 401 mg P/m²/yr was deposited as biodeposits. The turnover time of P in the clam population was 83 days. The major effect of the population on the lagoon ecosystem was the removal of particulate matter from the lagoon water; the turnover time of particulate P inflowed to the lagoon was 6.6 days under the supposition that the clam population was the only agent involved.

Fuji, N. 1976. Palynological investigations on a 200 meter core sample from Lake Biwa in central Japan. IN: Paleolimnology of Lake Biwa and the Japanese Pleistocene, S. Horie, Ed., Vol. 4, Contribution No. 183. pp. 357 422.

The presence of Corbicula sandai in the benthos of Lake Biwa is noted in a review of the limnology of the lake prior to descriptions of palynological studies.

Fujio, Y., R. Yamanaka and P. J. Smith. 1983. Genetic variation in marine mollusks. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 49(12):1809 1818.

Starch gel electrophoresis was carried out to survey genetic variation in 25 spp. of marine mollusks including Corbicula japonica. The gel phenotypes for 19 enzymes and muscle proteins are described. Genetic variation measured as the proportion of polymorphic loci varied from 9.190 to 0.667 with a mean of 9.412 + 0.030, as observed heterozygosity from 0.059 to 9.216 with a mean of 0.129+0.009, and as expected heterozygosity from 0.060 to 0.250 with a mean of 0.147+0.011. Marine molluscs are generally more variable than marine teleosts. An excess of homozygotes was observed at many loci in most species of the molluscs. Such a phenomenon has not been observed in marine Teleosts. Possible explanations for this observation are discussed.

Fujita, A. 1972. Recollections on the background of the study on thiamine and thermostable thiamine decomposing factor in Japan. Journal of Vitaminology (Kyoto) 18(1):67 72.

The history of the study of thiaminase and thiamine decomposition factors is reviewed. Corbicula sandai from Lake Biwa was used in some of this research although no precise details are given.

Fukushima, K. 1962. Polarographic studies on the molluscan meat. VIII. Studies on the distribution of homarine (N methyl picolinic acid betaine) in some molluscan and crustacean tissues. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 28:909 913.

The distribution of homarine in the tissues of Corbicula leana is discussed.

Fuller, S. 1974. The journey of the Chinese clam. Frontiers 39(2):12 13.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1974. Biota of Freshwater Ecosystems: a review. Association of Southeastern Biologists, Bulletin 21(3):109 112.

The manuals published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, including Manual No. 3, Freshwater Sphaeriacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of North America by J. B. Burch and which describes Corbicula sp., are reviewed.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1974. Macroinvertebrates and quantitative macroinvertebrate samples. IN: Cooper River Survey 1973 for the E. I. duPont de Nemours and Company. Department of Limnology, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. pp. 49 69, 143 145.

Corbicula manilensis (Philippi, 1841) is reported to be abundant in the Cooper River below Lake Moultrie, South Carolina.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1976. Final Report Submitted to the National Commission on Water Quality. IX. Biological, Ecological, and Environmental Characteristics of the Site, J. A. Hendrickson, Jr., L. F. Berseth, T. E. Walton, III and S. L. H. Fuller, Eds. Department of Limnology, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1977. Freshwater and terrestrial mollusks. IN: Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals of North Carolina, J. E. Cooper, S. S. Robinson, and J. B. Funderburg, Eds. North Carolina State Museum of Natural History (Raleigh). pp. 143 194.

The dispersal of Corbicula manilensis in the Atlantic Slope is discussed and its competition with native unionid species presented. The distribution of C. manilensis in North Carolina is presented.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1978. Fresh water mollusks. IN: An Annotated Checklist of the Biota of the Coastal Zone of South Carolina, R. G. Zongmark, Ed. University of South Carolina Press (Columbia). pp. 136 152.

The zoogeographic distribution, ecology, reproduction and systematics of Corbicula manilensis (Philippi, 1841) in South Carolina are reviewed.

Fuller, S. L. H. 1978. Freshwater Mussels (Unionidae) of the Upper Mississippi River. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 401 pp. [Also NTIS AD A109 982/9]

Fuller, S. L. H. 1979. The changing molluscan community. IN: The Freshwater Potomac: Aquatic Communities and Environmental Stresses, K. C. Flynn and W. T. Mason, Eds. Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin (Rockville, Maryland). pp. 124 131.

The occurrence and spread of Corbicula manilensis in the Potomac River is predicted. Since the river has been highly modified by man, there is nor reason to suppose that naturally occurring barriers in the river will serve to limit the spread of the species once it becomes established.

Fuller, S. L. H., F. W. Grimm, T. L. Laavy, H. J. Porter, and A. H. Shoemaker. 1980. Status report: fresh water and terrestrial mollusks. IN: Proceedings of the First South Carolina Endangered Species Symposium, D. M. Forsythe and W. B. Ezell, Jr., Eds. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department (Columbia). pp. 55 59.

Fuller, S. L. H. and M. J. Imlay. 1976. Spatial competition between Corbicula manilensis (Philippi), the Chinese clam (Corbiculidae), and the freshwater mussels (Unionidae) in the Waccamaw River basin of the Carolinas (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Association of Southeastern Biologists, Bulletin 23(2):60. [Abstract]

Dead mussel shells and abundant living Corbicula manilensis (Philippi, 1841) were found below the confluence of the Waccamaw River with the intracoastal Waterway (Horry County, South Carolina), where the river is profoundly disturbed by human activities. Above this confluence, where the river is, in general, little disturbed, mussels were found increasing dominant over C. manilensis, as samples were taken further upstream, until the latter disappeared. C. manilensis reappeared in Lake Waccamaw (Columbus County, North Carolina), but mussels persisted in apparently diminished numbers. The lake is almost encircled by extant and potential land development, but its floor remains negligibly damaged. It appears that C. manilensis does not (and perhaps cannot) dominate indigenous bivalves in nearly or quite natural habitats, at least in slowly moving, soft bottom Coastal Plain streams of the Atlantic drainage. Corrollarily, not to disturb aquatic habitats may be man's best defense against domination of the benthos by C. manilensis.

Fuller, S. L. H. and C. E. Powell, Jr. 1973. Range extension of Corbicula manilensis (Philippi) in the Atlantic Slope of the United States. The Nautilus 87(2):59.

Fuziwara, T. 1975. On the reproduction of Corbicula leana Prime. Venus, Japanese Journal of Malacology 34(1-2):54 56. [Japanese with English summary. Translation, ORNL tr 4186]

The ovulation of Corbicula leana Prime, 1864, which was believed to be a viviparous species, was observed in the laboratory and in outdoor culture ponds. Clams were found to ovulate throughout the year in aquaria whose temperature was greater than 19^oC. Fertilized eggs developed into D stage larvae. Spawning and development to the D stage were also seen in the culture ponds. Thus, C. leana is both ovoviviparous and oviviparous. D stage larvae were found within 60 hrs of spawning in water temperatures greater than 20^oC. Ovulation occurred simultaneously in all bivalves kept in both the aquaria and culture ponds.

Fuziwara, T. 1977. On the growth of young shell of Corbicula leana. Venus, Japanese Journal of Malacology 36(1):19 24. [Japanese with English summary]

Since the reproductive season of Corbicula leana Prime, 1864, is long, growth and development of the young clams may show considerable differences depending upon the time of discharge from the parent bivalve. The growth and development of bivalves discharged at the end of May become sexually mature in the same year and brood within a year. The shell length of D stage larvae ranges between 0.18 0.22 mm and shows only slight growth within 10 days of discharge. The siphons are completely differentiated at about 0.6 mm shell length and seem to function in feeding at 1.6 mm shell length. Growth rate is not even throughout life but rather shows drastic changes at 0.6 mm, 3.0 mm, and 10.0 mm shell length. The 0.6 mm stage is slowest while that from 3.0 mm to 10.0 mm is fastest. The clams become sexually mature at 10.0 mm shell length.

Fuziwara, T. 1978. On the ovulation of Corbicula leana Prime. Venus, Japanese Journal of Malacology 37(1):22 28. [Japanese with English summary]

Though Corbicula leana Prime, 1864, is sexually mature throughout the year, spawning takes place exclusively at times when water temperature is greater than 19^oC for ten days or more. Ovulation will occur in winter if this minimal temperature of 19^oC is maintained. Thus, these bivalves are fertile year round if kept under favorable conditions. This preference for warm temperatures suggests a tropical origin for C. leana. Ovulation is confined to a few hours in the morning or evening. Temperature for natural spawning varies by season; 15 17^oC in April and 18 22^oC during June to September. Maximum frequency of ovulation for a parent clam with a shell length of 25 mm was six, and the mean for the entire population was two. The interval between successive ovulations is 130 days maximum and 8 days minimum with the usual interval being 30 days. A bivalve with a shell length of 40 mm ovulated only once per year.

Fuziwara, T. 1979. A hypothesis on the distribution of Corbicula leana Prime. Venus, Japanese Journal of Malacology 38(1):68 69.

The spawning, development, and growth of Corbicula leana Prime, 1864, are closely related to water temperature. In winter, almost all of the young bivalves, whose shell lengths are below 7 mm, die from exposure to low water temperature. According to its reproductive habits and its mode of life, the habitats of this species can be classified into three categories: (1) A region where it is impossible to sustain naturally occurring populations, (2) A region where naturally occurring populations can be sustained and reproduction is possible during a certain season of the year, and (3) A region where naturally occurring populations can be sustained and reproduction is possible throughout the year. Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku, Japan, are included in the second region, and no region of Japan can be included in the definition of region 3. But, it is assumed that C. leana is found in a region three situation outside of Japan.