Physical Education Team Building Development Instruction

The object of American football is to score more points than your opponents in the allotted time. To do this they must move the ball down the pitch in phases of play before eventually getting the ball into the ‘end zone’ for a touchdown. This can be achieved by either throwing the ball to a teammate or running with the ball.

Each team gets 4 chances (downs) to move the ball 10 yards forward. Once they pass the 10 yards their downs reset and they start again for another 10 yards. After 4 downs have passed and they have failed to make it over the 10 yards required the ball will be turned over to the defensive team.

Players & Equipment

Whilst there are only 11 players from each team on the field at any team, an American football team is actually made up of 45 players. The teams are generally split into three groups of attacking (generally smaller, stronger, faster type of players, including a quarterback who is said to run the attacking plays and throw the ball to their teammates), defence (larger, more powerful players designed to stop players from running) and special team players (responsible for the kicking and punting side of the game with a mixture of larger and faster players).

An American football field is generally around 100 yards long and 160 yards wide. Lines are drawn on the field at 10 yard interval to indicate how far each team has to go before reaching the end zone. The end zones are added at each end of the pitch and are roughly 20 yards in length each. Posts can also be found at each end of which the kicker kicks the ball over.

Scoring

When a player scores a touchdown six points are awarded to their team. A touchdown can be scored by either carrying the ball into the end zone or receiving the ball from a pass whilst in the end zone. After a touchdown has been scored the attacking team have opportunity to kick the ball for an extra point. The ball must pass between the upright posts for a successful kick.

A field goal can be scored from anywhere on the pitch at any time (usually on the final down) and a successful kick will result in three points. A safety is where the defensive team manages to tackle an attacking opponent in their own end zone; for this the team will receive 2 points.

Winning the Game

The team with the most points at the end of the game will be deemed the winner. If the points are tied then over time will come into play where the teams will play an additional quarter until a winner is found.

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  Games last for four 15 minute quarters. A 2 minute break between the 1st & 2nd and 3rd & 4th quarters is had along with a 15 minute rest between 2nd and 3rd quarters (half time).
  
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  Each team has 4 downs to gain 10 or more yards. They can either throw or run the ball to make the yards. As soon as the team gains the required yards then the downs reset and the yardage resets. Failure to make the yardage after 4 downs will result in a turnover.
  
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  There are hundreds of different plays that players can run on any down. Plays are made up by the teams and often have players running all over the place (routes) in what is essentially organised chaos. The head coach or quarter back calls the on field plays for the attacking team whilst the defensive captain calls the plays for the defensive team.
  
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  At the start of every game is the coin toss to decide which team receives the ball first and which side of the pitch they want to start from.
  
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  The game begins with a kick-off where one team punts the ball down field for the other team to then run back with the ball as far as possible.
  
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  On fourth down the offence has the option to either try to make up the yards they are short or to kick the ball. If they decide to kick they have two options; to punt or to try for a field goal. Depending on their position on the pitch will usually dictate their paly. Anything within 40 yards or so of the opposition’s goal posts will result in a field goal attempt. Further back will likely mean they take the punt option.
  

Archery – that is, the use of a stringed bow to propel arrows towards a target – is thought to go back thousands of years – possibly even as far as the stone age of 20,000 BC – with bows and arrows used by numerous peoples over the millennia as a means of hunting and warfare. From the ancient Egyptians to the Shang dynasty of China (1766-1027 BC), Attila the Hun’s hordes to the great civilizations of the Assyrians, Persians and Parthians, archery was widely utilized.

The need to master archery – for huntsmen and soldiers alike – inevitably led to practicing the art, which in turn led to organized tournaments, the first recorded event of which took place in Fins bury in England in 1583 and included 3000 participants. The development of guns caused archery to lose its appeal on the battlefield, but it remained popular as a pastime and regular competitions were held in various countries. Archery was first included as an Olympic sport in 1900 for men and 1904 for women – one of the earliest sports for female competitors – and then in 1908 and 1920, then dropping out for a few decades before being reintroduced in 1972, since when it has been a mainstay of the Games.

Object of the Game

Competitive archery – that is, archery that involves archers aiming arrows at a target – has various forms, but all have the same aim: to shoot your arrows as close to the centre of the target as possible. In the Olympics competitors aim at a target from a distance of 70 metres, and rounds include a ranking round where the overall scores determine the athletes’ rankings priors to a head to head elimination format.

While clearly only one archer holds a bow at once, both individual and team competitions are undertaken. Archers must, of course, have a bow, which is described by the World Archery Federation (WA) as “an instrument consisting of a handle (grip), riser (no shoot-through type) and two flexible limbs each ending in a tip with a string nock.”

The bowstring may have any number of strands as long as it fits the bow, and an adjustable arrow rest and a bow sight may also be used. There is little restriction over the types of arrows used, other than those that may cause undue damage to targets, though the maximum diameter of the arrow shaft should not exceed 9.3mm and the diameter of the tips should not exceed 9.4mm. The athletes’ arrows should all be marked with his or her name or initials on the shaft and all arrows used by a competitor in a particular round (or “end”) should be identical.

Finger protection (including tape or gloves) may be used, as are chest protectors, arm guards and other such accessories that offer no explicit advantage other than of a protective or comfort-enhancing nature.

The target itself varies in size –those used in Olympic archery events measure 122cm in diameter – but all contain 10 concentric rings which represent the different scoring sectors. The outermost two rings (called one ring and two ring) are white, three and four are black, five and six are blue, seven and eight are red and nine and ten – the innermost rings – are gold. Ten ring also has an inner ring (known as “inner 10” or “X ring”) which is sometimes used to decide ties.

Scoring Scoring in archery is very simple: you just add up the number of points based on where your arrows hit the target. The highest score for a single arrow is 10 for hitting the inner gold ring, while the least (for hitting the outer white ring) is one point. Arrows missing the target altogether do not score at all.

In Olympic competition athletes must shoot 72 arrows in 12 phases, with the overall cumulative score deciding their ranking. They then go into a head to head knockout competition where they must simply score more than their opponent. Tournaments vary in format and the number of arrows competitors must shoot and the distance to the target.

In the event of a tied score the archer with the highest number of 10s (including inner 10s) is declared the victor. If that number is also equal the one with the greater number of inner 10s is the winner. Alternatively – or subsequently – a shoot-off can be used to separate the competitors who have tied.

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  Archers must adhere to all official rules in terms of the equipment they use in the performance of their sport, with the main emphasis being on them using no equipment or accessories that would give an unfair advantage over an opponent.
  
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  The maximum time permitted to shoot an end of three arrows is two minutes, and four minutes for an end of six arrows.
  
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  Athletes may not raise the bow arm until the signal to start is given and penalties can be given – in the form of points forfeits – if the bow is drawn after the official practice has been closed.
  
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  An arrow cannot be re-shot under any circumstances. The arrow may be considered not to have been shot if it falls from the bow or misfires, or if the target blows or falls over. Extra time would be given in such circumstances.
  
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  An arrow that rebounds or hangs from the target will still score based on the mark it makes on the target face. Arrows that stick – Robin Hood-style – in the nock of another shall score the same as the arrow in which they are embedded.
  
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  Athletes can be disqualified, have points deducted or be banned from competition for various breaches of rules, based on the severity of the offence.
  
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  If equipment is damaged, appeals can be made to the judge for such equipment to be replaced or fixed, and any time allowances will be at the judge’s discretion.
  

Variations of the game volleyball have been in circulation since around 1895. The game has evolved since then and it was in 1964 where the sport entered its first Olympic games. The sport now has a global following with nations from around the world professionally competing. The pinnacle of the sport comes in the Olympic Games were the best players are often on show.

The object of volleyball is to hit the volleyball over the net (by only using your hands) running through the centre of the court whilst trying to get it to bounce in your opponents half. The opposing team have to try and prevent the ball from bouncing before returning the ball. Games are played out in best of 3 or 5 sets and the team with most sets at the end of the game wins.

Each team has 6 players on a court at any one time. Substitutes can be used throughout the game. There are no professional mixed sex teams. Each player takes up a position in either the attacking zone (next to the net) or the defensive zone (at the back of the court). Three players are in each zone and rotate in a clockwise position after every point.

The court is of a rectangular shape and measures 18m x 9m. Running across the court is a 2.43m high net with the ball measuring 8 inches in diameter and weighing between 9 and 10 ounces. Around the outlines of the court is an out of bounds area and if the ball were to bounce in these sections then a point would be awarded to the opposing team.

Each team gets up to two timeouts per set of 30 seconds each. After each set the amount of timeouts resets back to two regardless of how many have been used previously.

To score a point the ball must hit the ground within the outlined section in your opponents half. You can also score a point by your opponent failing to hit the outlined section within your half or your opponent hitting the ball into the net. A point can be scored off either teams serve.

A player serving must do so from behind the base line and can use either an over or underarm action and hit with only the hand. Once the serve has been made the sever can join their team in-play and battle out the point.

Each team is allowed to hit the ball three times before the ball must be returned. A player is not allowed to hit the ball twice in succession. If the ball hits the boundary line then the ball is deemed to be in-play. The defensive team can jump and try to block the ball returning to their side of the court. If a block attempt is made and the ball bounces in their opponents half then a point is awarded. If after the block the ball bounces out then a point is awarded to the opposing team.

Each game is played to 25 points and must be two points clear. If the scores reach 24-24 then the game is played until one team leads by two.

Winning the Game

To win the game you must score more points than your opponents. The best of 3 or 5 sets are generally played and the winners will be the first team to reach the required number of sets.

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  Each team consists of 6 players and 6 substitutes. Players can be substituted at any time but if they are to return can only be swapped for the player that replaced them.
  
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  Each team can hit the ball up to three times before the ball must be returned. The defensive teams can then try and block or return the ball again hitting it a maximum of three times.
  
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  Games are played up to 25 points and must be won by 2 clear points.
  
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  Violations will be called for the following:
  
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    Stepping over the base line when serving the ball.
    
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    Ball hits the net and fails to get over the net (If the ball hits the net and still goes over the net then this is perfectly legal).
    
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    Players are not allowed to carry, palm or run with the ball.
    
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    Players must not touch the net with any part of the body. If the net is said to have hit them rather than vice-versa, then this is ok.
    
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    The ball cannot travel under the net.
    
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    Players cannot reach over the net and hit the ball. Tennis Rules
    

The game of tennis played on a rectangular court with a net running across the centre. The aim is to hit the ball over the net landing the ball within the margins of the court and in a way that results in your opponent being unable to return the ball. You win a point every time your opponent is unable to return the ball within the court.

A tennis match can be played by either one player on each side – a singles match – or two players on each side – a doubles match. The rectangular shaped court has a base line (at the back), service areas (two spaces just over the net in which a successful serve must land in) and two tram lines down either side. A singles match will mean you use the inner side tram line and a doubles match will mean you use the outer tram line.

A court can be played on four main surfaces including grass, clay, hard surface and carpet. Each tournament will choose one surface type and stick without throughout. All that is required in terms of equipment is a stringed racket each and a tennis ball.

Scoring

You need to score four points to win a game of tennis. The points are known as 15 (1 point), 30 (two points), 40 (three points) and the fourth would result in the winning point and the end of that game. If the scores went to 40-40 this would be known as deuce. When a game reaches deuce the player must then win by two clear points.

To win the game you must win a certain amount of sets (best of three for women’s matches and best of 5 sets for men’s matches). Winning a set is simply the first player to reach 6 games but have to be clear by at least 2 games. If your opponent wins 5 games you must win the set 7-5. If the set goes to 6-6 then a tie break is played and it’s simply the first player to 7 points.

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  The game starts with a coin toss to determine which player must serve first and which side they want to serve from.
  
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  The server must then serve each point from alternative sides on the base line. At no point must the server’s feet move in front of the baseline on the court prior to hitting their serve.
  
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  If the server fails to get their first serve in they may take advantage of a second serve. If they again fail to get their second serve in then a double fault will be called and the point lost.
  
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  If the server clips the net but the ball goes in the service area still then let is called and they get to take that serve again without penalty. If the ball hits the net and fails to go in the service area then out is called and they lose that serve.
  
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  The receiver may stand where they wish upon receipt of the serve. If the ball is struck without the serve bouncing then the server will receive the point.
  
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  Once a serve has been made the amount of shots between the players can be unlimited. The point is won by hitting the ball so the opponent fails to return it in the scoring areas.
  
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  Points are awarded in scores of 15, 30 and 40. 15 represent 1 point, 30 = 2 and 40 = 3. You
  
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  need 4 points to win a game. If a game lands on 40-40 it’s known as deuce. From deuce a player needs to win 2 consecutive points to win the game. After winning one point from deuce they player is on advantage. If the player wins the next point they win the game, if they lose it goes back to deuce.
  
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  To win the set a player must win 6 games by 2 or more. The opening sets will go to a tie break if its ends up 6-6 where players play first to 7 points. The final set will not have a tie break and requires players to win by two games with no limits.
  
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  If a player touches the net, distracts his opponent or impedes in anyway then they automatically lose the point.
  
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  The ball can hit any part of the line for the point to be called in, outside the line and the ball is out.
  
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  The balls in a tennis match are changed for new balls every 6 games
  
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  A player loses a point if they fail to return the ball in either the correct areas on the court, hits the net and doesn’t go into opponent’s area or fails to return the ball before it bounces twice in their half.
  

As of 2001 the aim of the game is to score 11 points (it was previously 21) by outmaneuvering your opponent into either hitting the ball into the net, hitting it off the table or missing it completely. Matches are normally contested as best of five, seven or nine games: that is to say, the first person to reach 11 points in three, four or five games respectively.

In singles play it is a game of one against one, whilst doubles pits two against two, although it is also possible to play two against one in informal situations (family holidays for instance!). Here we shall focus on singles rules.

Little equipment is needed to play ping pong, which is unsurprising given it was originally an improvised game played on a table using books for both the net and the bats! Officially the game is played using a 40mm diameter, white (or sometimes orange) table tennis ball weighing 2.7g; rackets (official term) that are normally called bats (UK) or paddles (USA) and are red on one side and black on the other; and a table measuring 2.74m (9ft) long, 76cm (30 inches) high and 1.52m (5ft) wide. The table is usually blue or green and has a 15.25cm (6 inch) net across its width, bisecting its length.

Scoring

Scoring is done by forcing your opponent into hitting the ball long or wide of the table or otherwise into the net or by playing a shot which they are unable to hit at all. When serving, your opponent wins the point if you fail to make a valid serve – one that bounces on your side of the table, then clears the net (if it hits the net it is a let and the player reserves) and bounces on their side.

Volleying the ball is not allowed, nor is obstructing it, whilst a double hit will also result in the awarding of the point to your opponent. Note that in table tennis the edges of the table (the lines) are “in” but the side is not.

Winning the Game

The winner of the match is the first to reach the allotted number of games, normally three, four or five. To win a game you must reach 11 points, although if the scores become level at 10-10 it is then the first player to lead by two points that is awarded the game.

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  Ping pong is played over a pre-agreed number of games and the first to 11 points wins each game.
  
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  The toss of a coin or another form of lot-drawing determines which of the players shall serve first.
  
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  Each table tennis player serves twice in turn and serves must be made from an open palm, the ball tossed six inches then struck so it bounces on the service side, clears the net, then bounces on the receiver’s side.
  
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  Points are decided as described above and games must be won by two clear points. At 10-10 each player serves once only, in turn, until one player established a two point lead and wins the game.
  
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  After each game the players rotate both the end of the table from which they are playing as well as who serves and receives the ball first.
  
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  In the deciding game of a match the players swap ends after either player reaches five points.
  

Softball is a variation of the sport baseball. It’s more commonly played at a recreational level and played on a pitch smaller than that of baseball. Whilst the rules are very similar there are some that differ. The sport is widely played throughout North America but there are also professional leagues played in Asia, Europe and South America.

The object of softball is to hit the ball with a bat before the player tries to run around an infield with four bases. Once a player manages to get right round without being given out a run is scored. The team with the most runs at the end of the game is deemed the winner.

Each softball team has 9 players. The game takes place over 7 innings and within each innings the team will bat then field. An innings is split into two sections called the top and the bottom of the innings. The away team bats first at the top of the innings whilst the home team field, then teams switch so the home team bats at the bottom of the innings.

Pitch sizes vary in softball and are often just whatever size can be found or used at the time. The in- filed has four bases in a diamond shape. The bases are home base (where the batter stands), first base, second base and third base. Home plate can be found in the centre of the field where the pitcher must stand to throw the ball. The pitcher must throw the ball underarm and must have at least one foot on the plate at the point of delivery.

Once a batting order is set at the start of the game it cannot be changed throughout. A batsman can be given out by being caught by a fielder without the ball bouncing, missing the ball three times in which a strike is called or by being tagged by a fielder holding the ball whilst running between bases. A batsman can be walked to first base if the pitcher fails to get the ball within the strike zone 4 times without a stroke being made. The strike zone in softball is larger than that of baseball.

Teams can be mixed with men and women or with just a single sex on each team. Once a team have completed their innings then the teams switch to do the opposite role. An innings is complete when the fielding team manage to get three players out from the bating team.