Fundamentals of geology I. (lithosphere) 1 1. The formation of the Earth 1

1

1. 1. Fundamentals of geology I. (lithosphere) 1

1.2. 1.2. Structure of the Earth 2

1.3. 1.3. The shape of the Earth 6

1.4. 1.4. Materials of the lithosphere – petrological bases 7

1.4.1. 1.4.1. Igneous rocks 8

1.4.2. 1.4.2. Sedimentary rocks 14

1.4.3. 1.4.3. Metamorphic rocks 25

1.5. 1.5. Movement processes in the lithosphere 27

1.6. Presentation 30

1.7. Self-checking tests 30

2. 2. Fundamentals of geology II. (palaeoecological reconstruction) 30

2.1. 2.1. Stratigraphy 30

2.2. 2.2. Palaeoecology 41

2.3. Presentation 44

2.4. Self-checking tests 44

3. 3. Engineering geology 44

3.1. 3.1. The practice 46

3.1.1. 3.2.1. Uniaxial compressive strength 46

3.1.2. 3.2.2. Fracture 48

3.1.3. 3.2.3. Shear strenght 53

3.2. 3.3. Soil mechanics 54

3.2.1. Grain size distribution 54

3.2.2. Mass-volume relations 55

3.3. Effective stress and capillarity 55

3.3.1. Hydrostatic conditions 55

3.3.2. Capillary action 56

3.3.3. Atterberg limits 56

3.3.4. Liquidity index 56

3.3.5. Relative density 56

3.4. Seepage: steady state flow of water 57

3.4.1. Typical values of permeability 57

3.4.2. Seepage forces and erosion 57

3.4.3. Seepage pressures 57

3.5. Consolidation: transient flow of water 57

3.5.1. Friction, interlocking and dilation 58

3.6. Shear behavior: stiffness and strength 58

3.6.1. Structure, fabric, and chemistry 58

3.6.2. Drained and undrained shear 58

3.6.3. Shear tests 59

3.6.4. 3.3.1. Soil exploration methods 59

3.7. Presentation 59

3.8. Self-checking tests 59

4. 4. Traffic engineering 59

4.1. 4.1. Road construction 60

4.1.1. 4.1.1. Earthwork 62

4.1.2. 4.1.2. Foundations 63

4.1.3. 4.1.3. Wearing surfaces 65

4.1.4. 4.1.4. Relief-equalizer structures 66

4.2. 4.2. Railroad construction 68

4.2.1. 4.2.1. Track bed and foundation 69

4.2.2. 4.2.2. Laying a permanent way 70

4.3. Presentation 70

4.4. Self-checking tests 70

5. 5. Geological aspests of traffic engineering - a case study 70

5.1. 5.1. Geological and geographical overview 71

5.2. 5.2. Suitable materials for road construction and permafrost 72

5.3. 5.3. Geological model for the area 73

5.4. 5.4. Environmental and conservation aspects 76

5.5. Presentation 77

5.6. Self-checking tests 77

6. 6. Environmental geology; definition and methods 77

6.1. 6.1. Fundamentals of environmental geology 77

6.2. 6.2. Subjects of environmental geology 78

6.2.1. 6.2.1. Geologic hazards 79

6.2.2. 6.2.2. Antropogen environmental hazards 84

6.3. 6.3. Methods 84

6.3.1. 6.3.1. Field methods 84

6.3.2. 6.3.2. Laboratory methods 86

6.3.3. 6.3.3. Mapping 87

6.4. Presentation 88

6.5. Self-checking tests 88

7. 7. Environmental effects of human activity; mining 88

7.1. 7.1. Mining 88

7.1.1. 7.1.1. History 89

7.1.2. 7.1.2. Mining techniques 89

7.1.3. 7.1.3. Mining sectors 93

7.2. 7.2. Environmental effects 97

7.3. 7.3. Mine-rehabilitation 99

7.4. 7.4. Mining today 100

7.5. Presentation 101

7.6. Self-checking tests 101

8. 8. Environmental effects of human activity; energy production 101

8.1. 8.1. Energy production and consumption 101

8.2. 8.2. Fossil fuel 102

8.2.1. 8.2.1. Air pollution and acidification 103

8.2.2. 8.2.2. Traffic pollution 106

8.3. 8.3. Nuclear energy 109

8.4. 8.4. Hydropower 109

8.5. 8.5. Renewable energy 112

8.5.1. 8.5.1. Solar energy 112

8.5.2. 8.5.2. Wind power 112

8.5.3. 8.5.3. Biomass 113

8.5.4. 8.5.4. Geothermal energy 114

8.5.5. 8.5.5. Hydrogen 115

8.6. Presentation 116

8.7. Self-checking tests 116

9. 9. Environmental effects of industry 116

9.1. 9.1. Air pollution 116

9.2. 9.2. Acid deposition 123

9.3. 9.3. Greenhouse Effect 124

9.4. 9.4. Radiation pollution 126

9.5. 9.5. Thermal pollution 128

9.6. 9.6. Noise pollution 129

9.7. 9.7. Light pollution 130

9.8. Presentation 132

9.9. Self-checking tests 132

10. 10. Environmental effects of agriculture 132

10.1. 10.1. Environmental effects of modern agriculture 132

10.2. 10.2. Effects of agriculture to soil (groundwater) 136

10.2.1. 10.2.1. Soil degradation 136

10.2.2. 10.2.3. Soil Acidification 140

10.3. 10.3. Effects of agriculture to the ecosystem of soil 141

10.3.1. 10.3.1. Land transformation and degradation 141

10.3.2. 10.3.2. Eutrophication 142

10.3.3. 10.3.3. Irrigation 142

10.3.4. 10.3.4. Pesticides 143

10.3.5. 10.3.5. Herbicides and insecticides 143

10.3.6. 10.3.6. Monocultures 143

10.4. Presentation 144

10.5. Self-checking tests 144

11. 11. Environmental effects of waste production 144

11.1. 11.1. Definition 145

11.2. 11.2. Types of wastes 145

11.2.1. 11.2.1. Classification on the base of the origin 145

11.3. 11.3. Waste Management Practices 147

11.3.1. 11.3.1. Municipal Solid Waste 147

11.3.2. 11.3.2. Industrial Solid Waste 151

11.3.3. 11.3.3. Agricultural Waste and Residues 151

11.3.4. 11.3.4. Wastewaters, mud waste 152

11.3.5. 11.3.5. Radioactive Waste 152

11.4. 11.4. Environmental effects of waste depositions 152

11.5. 11.5. Requirements of establishment waste deposition 153

11.6. Presentation 154

11.7. Self-checking tests 154

12. 12. Environmental geological facilities of Hungary, sensibility and hereditary dishease of the geographical units 154

12.1. 12.1. Environmental geological facilities of Hungary 154

12.1.1. 12.1.2. Climate 156

12.1.2. 12.1.4. Soils 163

12.2. 12.2. Environmental geological features of Hungarian main areas 164

12.2.1. 12.2.1. Great Hungarian Plate 164

12.2.2. 12.2.2. Little Hungarian Plate 164

12.2.3. 12.2.3. Feet of the Alps 165

12.2.4. 12.2.4. Transdanubian Hills 165

12.2.5. 12.2.6. North Hungarian Mountain Ranges 165

12.3. 12.3. Environmental problems of Hungary 166

12.3.1. 12.3.1. Natural hazards 166

12.3.2. 12.3.2. Anthropogenous environmental hazards 166

12.4. Presentation 170

12.5. Self-checking tests 170

13. References 170

14. Test 172

Engineering and Environmental Geology

Árpád Dávid

2013

 

Introduction

In the time of the preparation of this textbook the only known populated planet had been the Earth. Which is more chapters of this book will be red at this planet, too.

The Earth is our home. It is why we have to know it in details. This means the base of our common future.

The book can be divided into twelve chapters. It begins with the basics of geology than follows with the geological aspects of buildings than shows the how the human activity influence the geological environment.

The book is not a pure theoretical work, but through case studies introduces many case studies strengthen the practical aspects of the topic.

This the only textbook which deals with the basics of the two large scientific themes, the enginiering geology and the environmental geology at a time.

The author hopes that his work conductive enbcontribution to the understanding of the subjet.

1. 1. Fundamentals of geology I. (lithosphere)

On the base of lunar and meteorite rocks Earth formed in this manner about 4.6 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years. The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field (Hartai 2003, Kubovics 2008).

1.2. 1.2. Structure of the Earth

The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass, and by estimating the volume of the Earth, its average density can be calculated. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass from its orbit and effects on nearby planetary bodies. Observations of rocks, bodies of water and atmosphere allow estimation of the mass, volume and density of rocks to a certain depth, so the remaining mass must be in the deeper layers.