Industrial Revolution
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- The Scientific and Technological Development in the Revolution
- Major change due to Industrial Revolution A. Coal and Iron Industry
- B. Steel and the Skyscraper
- E. Steam Engine, Locomotive and Ship
- F. Electric Power and its Development
- G. Internal Combustion Engine and Flying Machine
- I. Calculating Devices and Computer
| What is “Industrial Revolution”?
Industrial Revolution is a term used to describe the economic and social transformation of Britain during a period 1740 to 1850 by Arnold Toynbee in 1882. Recently, it discusses the rapid development of the organization of manufacturing industry that transformed from a rural to an urban economy especially that occurred in Britain in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The revolution was in technology-new techniques involving new machinery and new processes-but was accompanied by social and political changes. The industrial revolution began at about the 18th century. It changed the world focusing on new methods and organization for producing goods, industrialization altered the people live. It consisted of the application of new sources of power to the production process, achieved with transmission equipment necessary to apply this power to manufacturing and progressively replaced the muscular strength of humans and animals as the power sources of production with motors powered by the wind, falling water, by fossil fuels and, recently by nuclear power. The key invention in western countries’ industrial revolution was the steam engine (developed by 1775), which harnessed the energy potential of coal. Later it also used electric and internal combustion motors (developed by 1870s) and petroleum. Before the industrial revolution, nearly all production in manufacturing and agriculture relied on equipment powered by people or draft animals, which designed for manual use in planting or harvesting with the aid of simple tools like sickles, looms for weaving cloth by foot pedals, fibers strung by hand, and animals often pulled plows for farming, with some small assistance from waterwheels which used mainly to mill grain. The industrial revolution progressively introduced steam (developed by 1705) or other power to the production process. Water powered loom not only replaced foot pedals but also crossed threads automatically after a worker initially attached them to the frame (water frame, 1769). Machine tending involved to ensure the thread supply remained constant and dealing with snapped threads; the cloth itself did not have to be touched by hands until it was gathered by semi-automatic machine - the revolutions in technology resulted a great increase in the total output of goods and workers worked individually. Increased output increased the standard of living, and possibly improved material conditions for the masses to provide for rapidly growing populations. The Scientific and Technological Development in the Revolution Among the 15th century, some basic technology required for the manufacturing of machine tools were created such as the pioneer instrument and lathe makers introducing the metallic gear, toothed wheel, pendulum, the use of screw in assembling the clocks as well as adopted compass by sailors. On the other hand, optical instruments, gunpowder, thermoscopes, and devices to measure changes in temperature were invented and discovered by scientists. Weaving and metallurgy were also improved thus affected the social and economic development thereafter. Beginning in the 17th century and throughout the 18th century, Europeans adopted new methods of farming and experimenting with new types of vegetables and grains. They learned about manure and fertilizer as well as adoption of new crops and farming technologies, treating farming as a science to improve yields. The cultivation of the open-field system applied the rotation of nitrogen-fixing and cereal crops obviated the necessity of leaving of the land fallows each planting. Another feature of the new farming was the cultivation of turnips and potatoes. Jethro Tull and Lord Townshend invented the importance of root crops. The seed drill allowed the seed to germinate by planting it below the surface of the ground out of reach of the birds and winds. With less fallow land and more land in use overall, food production expanded, which also contributed to population growth and to release of new workers for other potential work activities. Increased food supplies spurred population growth and reduced the percentage of the labour force required in agriculture. Domestic manufacturing system spread as more workers became available, while population growth and new consumer interests created new markets, particularly for textiles. Many rural workers began to farm only part-time, taking orders for thread and cloth from urban merchants at other points. That was why people had to modernize industries as to manufacture more goods to satisfy what people needed.   Manual sowing and harvesting Threshing using winnowing machine Major change due to Industrial Revolution A. Coal and Iron Industry Coal and iron industry is the foundation of modern industries. Coal was used in many industrial processes such as brewing, glass, ceramic and metalworking industries. Coal was the main power source during industrial revolution even before 18th century, since coal mining was well developed and went about tearing coal from the ground. Before 11th century, European used wood to smelt metal that led the wood almost used up in Britain. The price of charcoal was largely increased and coal was substituted in the smelting of metals including iron. 1709 Abraham Darby successfully converted coke from coal (by heating and concentrating it in special oven to remove the chemical impurities) and to use coke instead of wood derived charcoal (a more expensive, less efficient fuel) for smelting iron ore to produce better quality iron products. 1776 John Wilkinson introduced steam blasting furnace design to improve coke production and first demonstrated that coke made from coal could be used to produce quality iron on a large scale. 1784 Henry Cort invented the reverberatory furnace for refining iron saved fuel but above all increased productivity, and new steam-powered machines techniques for rolling raw iron replacing manual hammering, a finishing process that shaped iron into the desired size and form. These enabled iron, which was relatively inexpensive and abundant, to be used in many new ways, such as building heavy machinery because of its strength and durability. Because of these new developments iron came to be used in machinery for many industries such as cylinder for steam engines to spinning machines. The growth of iron industry surged coal mining to provide the fuel for iron smelting and for steam engines generally. Drawing more and more coal out of the ground had to mine deeper and deeper. The deeper the mine the more improvements in timbering mine pits to allow deeper shafts. It was also vital to the development of rails, which improved transportation. Metal rails were laid down to facilitate carts of coal being pulled by steam-driven engines. At this time, more efficient mining processes for both coal and iron ore were used to ensure a constant supply of raw materials – the cast iron. On the other hand, a new coal-gas industry was developed due to the by-product of the coke production from coal. 1889 George Westinghouse developed the efficient way to transmit the clean coal gas to homes and industries for fuel. Coal gas was used in lighting and then it was used as fuel for cooking in about 20th century. B. Steel and the Skyscraper Refining of the brittle cast iron had to improve and to make it more malleable and tougher. Early to 1000, Arabian had already known to make a high quality steel sword, also Europeans knew steel making process in the middle century. At the early 19th century, Europeans began to manufacture machine tools with steel, but the process was very slow, difficult and extremely expensive. A new breakthrough in metallurgy – the well-known “Bessemer Process” in 1856 brought greater changes in many ways than those previously created by the use of coke and coal. Henry Bessemer developed a de-carbonization process of removing chemical impurities in particular carbon, utilizing a blast of compressed air passing through the molten pig iron inside a converter furnace (altered furnace design) to make steel, a harder and more malleable metal, quickly and cheaply, which had a positive impact on all areas of the economy. Ten years later, William Siemens improved the “Bessemer Process” into the “Open-hearth Process” to refining raw iron to steel. 1878 two British chemists, Sidney Thomas and P.C. Gilchrist invented a new technique to refine the worse quality iron (containing phosphorus impurities) into better quality steel. At the 20th century, with the well developed of electricity, steel was manufactured by “Electric Arc Furnace” process after combining the Bessemer and Open-hearth Processes. This method not only manufactured special purpose steel but huge productivity gain. 
Open-hearth furnace The cheaply process for making steel led to one of its use in the construction industry. Inventor was interested in the construction of the skyscraper. By 1889 George A Fuller built the “Tacoma Building” in Chicago, the first structure in which the outer walls carried no burden and served no purpose other than to keep out the elements. 1902 he built the first skyscraper in New York with the employing of steel cage system based on Bessemer steel beams in which the whole building weight would rest on the beam. Today, about half of all the large apartments and office buildings built on this steel cage system. In Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation Headquarter was built in 1985. The construction of the building bases of eight large steel beams framework and the inner space were huge and bright. It was one of the famous building in the world. 
The Hong Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation Headquarter C. Machine Tools The making of machines to make machine was one of the most important aspects in the industrial revolution. During the late 17th century, clockmaker, scientific instrument builders, furniture and gun makers began to change to machine tool steel from wood-working lathes. They needed gear cutting, grinding, precise screw-cutting machines to fabricate their products. The development of precise machine tools of the late 18th and early 19th century made possible the construction of the steam engine and the machines it had to power. 1770 Jesse Ramsden made the first satisfactory screw-cutting lathe. 1775 John Wilkinson, the ironmaster, invented the precision horizontoal-boring mill that made Watt’s steam engine a practical source of power. The steam engine cylinder could not be manufactured until machine tools had been devised that were producing accurate accessories. His factory casted the iron for the first all-iron bridge constructed in England from 1779 to 1781 and also built the first iron barge to transport his iron products down the River Severn in 1787. The name of John Wilkinson is attached today to Wilkinson razor blades. In 1798, an American Eli Whitney refined and successfully applied the “uniformity-system” of production using inter-changeable parts to produce weapons that he demonstrated randomly selected parts would fit together as a whole working musket. This example affected the future inventions and innovations of mass production of interchangeable parts. Later in 1818 he invented the first milling machine. From 1797 to 1800, Henry Maudslay first designed a large screw-cutting lathe and developed an improved micrometer. The micrometer for the bench work on this machine was accurate to one ten-thousandth of an inch. 1817s Richard Roberts introduced a more powerful lathe and built the first planing machine for metal, and shortly thereafter his first gear cutting machine, he also improved the spinning mule and designed a punching machine for making rivet holes in 1847. In 1830 Joseph Whitworth, the best known inventor, constructed a measuring machine that could measure accurate to one-millionth of an inch and also improves and enlarged many of the early machine tools. He was the first suggesting the standardization of screw threads in British industry. James Nasmyth invented the milling machine and a planing machine or shaper. D. Textile Industry Some of the most controversial inventions of all times have been connected with the textile industry. A series of extraordinary innovations replaced the human labour required to make cloth. Each of the advance created problems elsewhere in the production process that led to further improvements. In earlier times, the spinning of yarn and the weaving of cloth occurred primarily in the home, with most of the work done by people working alone or with family members. This pattern lasted for many centuries before 18th century. 1785 Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom that mechanized the weaving process from a home-based craft became an industry. The major technological innovation was the cotton gin (a machine for separating raw cotton from its seed). Cotton is a plant grown in America and India, it was a labour-intensive agriculture. Cotton had to be stretched out or spun into threads to begin with: this process was done slowly, one thread at a time by a machine called a spinning wheel. 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which mechanized the separating of seeds from cotton fibres that enabled a worker to clean more than 50 times as much cotton a day. Finally the textile industry became so large that it outgrew the possibilities of its power source: water power, steam came to drive the machine of industry.
The first innovation in cotton manufacture was the fly-shuttle by John Kay (1733). This device made it possible for one person to weave wide bolts of cloth by using a spinning mechanism that sent the shuttle across the loom which partially mechanized the process of weaving that greatly speed up the process of weaving cotton threads into cloth. 1770 James Hargreaves had invented the “spinning jenny” device which mechanically drew out and twisted the fibres into thread and mechanized the process of spinning a number of threads at once. A spinning jenny was a series of simple machines rather than a single machine and it spun 16 threads of cotton simultaneously. This resulted multiple machines in a single machine as well as a machine that was designed not only to speed up work but to do the work of several labours simultaneously. Five years later, Richard Artwright developed the first water-powered frame spinning machine; it twisted and wound threads by means of flyers and bobbins operating continuously. These developments permitted a single spinner to make numerous strands of yarn at the same time. In 1779 Samuel Cromptom introduced a machine by combined the spinning jenny and water frame into the “water mule”. This Cromptom mule not only further improved mechanized spinning but produced fine strong yarn which decreasing the danger that threads would break. This kind of mule is used today with some variations. Elias Howe designed the first sewing machine in 1843 which was based on a lock stitch, originally limited sewing to straight seams. 1851 Isaac Singer invented the first really practical domestic sewing machine, which was the first machine to have a straight needle, foot treadle and able to sew curved seams. The trademark “Singer” associated upon today. Throughout the textile industry, these new machines could be powered by steam engines as well as waterwheels. Other inventions included new bleaching and dying procedures (in the 1770s and 1780s) and roller printers for cloth designs that replaced labourious block printing by hand-another new method that increased production a hundredfold while reducing workers’ skill requirements. Row upon row of these innovative, highly productive machines filled large, new mills and factories. The most important results of these changes were enormous increase in the output of goods per worker. A single spinner or weaver could now turn out many times the volume of yarn or cloth that earlier workers had produced. By the end of 18th century, the manufacture of thread and cloth was slowly moving out of the family economy and into large factory mills. 
Textile factory E. Steam Engine, Locomotive and Ship Steam engine was perhaps the most important machine technology in the revolution. Inventors and improvements in the use of steam for power began prior to the 18th century as they had with iron. The development of steam engine replaced water as the major sources of motive power in industries like mining, making cloth and driving ships and locomotives. As early mills had run successfully with water powered, but the advancement of using the steam engine meant that a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. During 1689 – 1698, Thomas Savery created and patented the first steam engine to the elevation of water and the drainage of mines. By 1705 Thomas Newscomem improved the steam engine pumping equipment as an atmospheric engine used to eliminate seepage in tin and copper mines. He put a vertical piston and cylinder at the end of a pump handle, and steam was admitted to the cylinder and then condensed it by a jet of cold water. The vacuum created inside the cylinder allowed atmospheric pressure to operate a piston which was forced downward on its working stroke. At 1712, Newcomem partnered with John Calley developed an improved version as a single piston engine and built their first engine on the site of a water-filled mine shaft.
Although the engines were slow and inefficient they were better than any other devices yet invented for pumping water out of mines. 1763, the “father of steam engine” James Watt repaired a model Newcomem engine and perfected Newcomem’s invention that he solved the inefficiency problem upon 1765. He fit with a separating cooling chamber to the machine to condense the steam by connecting to the cylinder with a valve so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled (something not achieved by Newcomem), making it a reciprocating engine changing it from an atmospheric to a true “steam engine” . He also added a crane and flywheel to provide rotary motion. 1773, James Watt and Matthew Boulton took into partnership contracted with John Wilkinson for accurately machined cylinders for their steam engines. Two years later they solved technical problems and spread the solutions to other industries especially important in machine tool industry. It reduced the amount of research time and expense than individual business of its own resources, then firm often shared information and could use to create new techniques or products. 1785 William Murdock developed a model of a high-pressure engine. By 1801 Richard Trevithick perfected his design for a cylindrical boiler and high pressure engine and built several full size steam carriages run on English roads.
At mid-18th century, the rail track had been in common use for moving coal from pithead to the colliery or furnace. The railway had first been wooden track-ways along which horses hauled coal wagon to the nearest water transport. With the improvement in iron, wooden track was replaced by iron edged rail. The coming of the railroads greatly facilitated the industrialization of Europe. Richard Trevithick had an engine pulling trucks around the mines where he worked in Cornish. By 1801, he built several steam locomotives where he perfected his designs for a cylindrical boiler and high pressure engines. By 1825 Trevithick and George Stephenson, the early locomotive builders constructed a fire burning steam engine to propel a boxlike affair on wheels and carrying cargoes much heavier than its own weight. They opened the first public railway line between the port of Stockton and Darlington, a mining center. The line worked by a Stephenson locomotive. An improved model featuring a large boiler that could produce greater heat was tested in 1827 and put to regular use just a few months later. By 1829 a more ambitious railway was opened between the cotton port of Liverpool and the great factory center in Manchester, and on this line George Stephenson’s “Rocket” steam locomotive pulled a train of cars at 14 miles an hour. During 1844 to 1850, a network of railways had been built aided by the cheap iron and better machine tools. 1868, George Westinghouse developed the first air brake device to stop a heavy train using compressed air and designed an electrical block signal to help move rail traffic avoid wreck by 1881.
Developed at about the same time were steam-driven ships. From 1770 onwards, various men had experimented with steam engines in boats. In 1786 John Fitch designed a dual, 12 paddle assembly and tested on the Delaware River in America. 1801 William Symington built “the first practical steamboat” in Scotland. 1807 Robert Fouton built the “Clermont” a smoke stack steamboat with side paddles and powered by a Boulton and Watt engine, traveled on the Hudson River to Albany. By 1811 Belt built the “Comet” steamboat and ran it for 8 years between Glasgow a port – twenty-five miles distant. With 1840s Samuel Cunard operated transatlantic crossings regularly with steam ship. The self-propelled steam vessel was more expensive to build and operate than sailing vessel due to its boiler and machinery were so bulky that there was little room left for passenger. The technical problem were solved shortly but the economic aspect took more time. The development of ships and railroads revolutionized the conveyance of goods and people, more bulks could be transported over longer distance at greater speed than ever before. On the other hand, coal and iron (soon steel) production had to expand simply to meet the demand generated by railroad construction and operation. F. Electric Power and its Development Although the development of steam engines replaced the water as the major sources of motive power and employed in industries, the main disadvantage was to spend a large amount of fuel in order to starting up the machine. Fuel had to delivery to the factories in which increased the costing. Engineers and scientists searched eagerly to invent other relatively cheaper power sources. Electricity was the invention during the mid 19th century. As early as 1750s, Benjamin Franklin studied the relationship between lighting and electricity. Through the 19th century, the use of electric power was limited due to small productive capacity, short transmission lines and very expensive. The only use was to transmit telegraph with the Morse Code in the form of points and symbols but not words. The electric lighting was nothing usually more than an arc jumping between two carbon rods, it required constant attention, and was noisy and smoky. It was not suitable used in the family. 1821 Michael Faraday demonstrated electro-magnetic rotation, the principle of the electric motor and discovered electro-magnetic current, making possible generators and electric engines in 1831. A dynamo capable of prolonged operation was developed until 1873. 1880s Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan built their first successful incandescent filament lamp used the same principle as today’s electric light bulb. They had the advantage of using the first really efficient vacuum pump to evacuate the air from glass bulbs, although Edison had to search for a long-lasting conductor the filament also burnt brightly as the filament material reacted with oxygen in air when passed current. 1882 he opened the first commercial electric power generating plant in U.S. 1890 Florence boasted the first electric streetcar. Up to 1900 the only cheap electricity was that produced by generators making use of falling water in the mountains. George Westinghouse developed the first induction motor and the first contract to harness the enormous water power of Niagara Falls as well as the first power station turbine generator. During the early 20th century, other new electrical inventions, there is hardly a business or a home which does not use electricity and electricity is nearly indispensable to modern life.  Incandescent filament lamp invented by Edison G. Internal Combustion Engine and Flying Machine The internal combustion engine as we know it today is the result of the contributions of hundreds of experimenters, engineers, and scientists. It was developed before1900s. Its origins can be traced back to the late 17th century as the idea was conceived of exploding gunpowder inside a cylinder in order to move a piston. 1860 a French engineer, Etienne Lenoir produced the first really successful internal combustion engine. Nikolaus Otto built the first engine on the four-stroke principle in 1876. 1879 George Selden patented on the gasoline automobile. Seven years later, Gottlieb Daimler introduced the idea of using gasoline as a combustion agent rather than coal gas, and fitted his engine into a primitive motorcycle in 1883. Three years later, Karl Benz produced the first forerunner of the modern automobile by fitting his own designed engine (electrical starter) to a four wheeled cart. By 1891, a Frenchmen, Emil Levassor produced a vehicle commercially, which included a front-mounted twin cylinder engine connected by a friction clutch to a three speed gear box, with a chain driving the rear axle, which included a differential gear. Henry Ford produced the similar type vehicles in 1896 and established a factory to manufacture motor vehicles in 1902. The growth of the automobile industry revolutionized road-making. On the other hand, a German engineer, Rudolf Diesel successfully designed the diesel fuel engine in which the fuel was lighted by high pressure instead of electrical spark. 1892 he patented the newly designed engine and introduced to public in 1898 the high efficiency Diesel engine. During the later half of the 19th century, primitive gliders and balloons had been used as transportation tool. By 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made their first successful flight in a heavier-than-air machine.
At the start of human history, man had always wanted to communicate from afar. People used smoke signals, mirrors, jungle drums, carrier pigeons and semaphores to get a message from one point to another. At about 1800, most people communicated with others by mails. Their mails were always posted and delivered by riding horse or carriage for a few days. Communications between on oceangoing vessels were the flag-signal and special flag-language system or signal-gun for militaries. The invention of telegraph was the milestone of communication. Other invention that affected the communication was telephone. Early in the 1820, the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere discovered the electro-magnetic wave could transmit signals through metal wires. The discovery of signal transmission intrigued scientists to study the communicated tools. Samuel F.B. Morse, an American man invented telegraph as well as the Morse Code from 1830 to 1836. Two Englishmen William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone teamed up and devised an improved instrument that contained 6 wires and 5 operating needles, rather than a wire for each letter of alphabet, which was common in other contemporary devices. They installed a telegraph line along the railway to report the position of trains in 1839. This offered the first telegraph to the public as a commercial service and used the electricity firstly in a commercial enterprise. Railway signaling was nonexistent up until this time. In 1844 Morse sent the first message effectively by using single strand and single needle system with his invented Morse’s code through a telegraph line built between Washington and Baltimore. The system became widely used in the coming future. An under-sea telegraph line built between France and Britain in 1851. The first Trans-Atlantic cable placed in service in 1857 but failed after two months, and Cyrus Field laid successfully until 1866. The message could be flashed halfway around the world in a matter of minutes as telegraph cables reached from London to Australia at about 1871. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invented the first practical telephone in which human voice could be transmitted over a wire. The telephone became popular after several years that George Westinghouse patented his citywide telephone switching system, created long before widespread use by the telephone companies in U.S. In accomplish with telephone line, facsimile transmission technology was the other invention in communication. In 1843, an Englishman Alexander Bain devised the first apparatus capable to reproduce writing on an electrically conductive surface. 20 years later the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli built a pentelegraph, which was based on Bain’s invention but also included a synchronized apparatus, and the pentelegraph used between Paris and Marseilles from 1856 to 1870. Elisha Gray, American inventor, invented and patented his facsimile transmission system and organized a company that later became the Western Electric Company. In 1886, a German professor of physics, Heinrich Hertz transmitted the first radio wave or the wireless telegraph when was trying to prove the light and electrical wave theories of a Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell. By 1897, an Italian born Guglielmo Marconi successfully built his “wireless” telegraph and bringing the use of radio waves out of university laboratory and into industry and marketed his new invention in forming a company in London. Its utility demonstrated the first time in saving life at sea as the wireless telegraph enabled life boats to be quickly dispatched to a vessel sinking off the English coast. At the end of the century the wireless telegraph became a standard safety device on oceangoing vessel. I. Calculating Devices and Computer The first slide-rule was invented at about 1630 and the slide-rule may be the most calculating device upon any pocket sized calculator appeared. In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the first adding machine. During 19th century W.S. Burroughs manufactured a calculating machine (both add and multiply) whose results could be recorded on a roll of paper. Charles Babbage, a mathematics professor at Cambridge University in England and an American statistician Herman Hollerith developed the early-year-computer during the 1890s. Babbage had envisioned an analytical machine in which could not only calculate, but store or memorize the data it was working on. Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 and developed a punched card system and electro-mechanical counter to record statistical data and also the entering data by means of a keyboard in 1901. 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