Language Specification Version 0 Notice
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C# Language Specification Version Notice © 1999-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft, Windows, Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual C++ are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the U.S.A. and/or other countries/regions. Other product and company names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their respective owners. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Hello world 1 1.2 Program structure 2 1.3 Types and variables 4 1.4 Expressions 7 1.5 Statements 9 1.6 Classes and objects 13 1.6.1 Members 14 1.6.2 Accessibility 14 1.6.3 Type parameters 15 1.6.4 Base classes 15 1.6.5 Fields 16 1.6.6 Methods 16 1.6.6.1 Parameters 16 1.6.6.2 Method body and local variables 18 1.6.6.3 Static and instance methods 18 1.6.6.4 Virtual, override, and abstract methods 19 1.6.6.5 Method overloading 22 1.6.7 Other function members 22 1.6.7.1 Constructors 24 1.6.7.2 Properties 25 1.6.7.3 Indexers 25 1.6.7.4 Events 26 1.6.7.5 Operators 26 1.6.7.6 Destructors 27 1.7 Structs 27 1.8 Arrays 28 1.9 Interfaces 30 1.10 Enums 31 1.11 Delegates 32 1.12 Attributes 33
2.1 Programs 37 2.2 Grammars 37 2.2.1 Grammar notation 37 2.2.2 Lexical grammar 38 2.2.3 Syntactic grammar 38 2.3 Lexical analysis 38 2.3.1 Line terminators 39 2.3.2 Comments 39 2.3.3 White space 41 2.4 Tokens 41 2.4.1 Unicode character escape sequences 41 2.4.2 Identifiers 42 2.4.3 Keywords 44 2.4.4 Literals 44 2.4.4.1 Boolean literals 44 2.4.4.2 Integer literals 45 2.4.4.3 Real literals 46 2.4.4.4 Character literals 46 2.4.4.5 String literals 47 2.4.4.6 The null literal 49 2.4.5 Operators and punctuators 49 2.5 Pre-processing directives 50 2.5.1 Conditional compilation symbols 51 2.5.2 Pre-processing expressions 51 2.5.3 Declaration directives 52 2.5.4 Conditional compilation directives 53 2.5.5 Diagnostic directives 55 2.5.6 Region directives 56 2.5.7 Line directives 56 2.5.8 Pragma directives 57 2.5.8.1 Pragma warning 57 3. Basic concepts 59 3.1 Application Startup 59 3.2 Application termination 60 3.3 Declarations 60 3.4 Members 62 3.4.1 Namespace members 63 3.4.2 Struct members 63 3.4.3 Enumeration members 63 3.4.4 Class members 63 3.4.5 Interface members 64 3.4.6 Array members 64 3.4.7 Delegate members 64 3.5 Member access 64 3.5.1 Declared accessibility 64 3.5.2 Accessibility domains 65 3.5.3 Protected access for instance members 68 3.5.4 Accessibility constraints 69 3.6 Signatures and overloading 70 3.7 Scopes 71 3.7.1 Name hiding 74 3.7.1.1 Hiding through nesting 74 3.7.1.2 Hiding through inheritance 75 3.8 Namespace and type names 76 3.8.1 Fully qualified names 78 3.9 Automatic memory management 79 3.10 Execution order 81 4. Types 83 4.1 Value types 83 4.1.1 The System.ValueType type 84 4.1.2 Default constructors 84 4.1.3 Struct types 85 4.1.4 Simple types 85 4.1.5 Integral types 86 4.1.6 Floating point types 87 4.1.7 The decimal type 88 4.1.8 The bool type 89 4.1.9 Enumeration types 89 4.1.10 Nullable types 89 4.2 Reference types 90 4.2.1 Class types 90 4.2.2 The object type 91 4.2.3 The string type 91 4.2.4 Interface types 91 4.2.5 Array types 91 4.2.6 Delegate types 91 4.3 Boxing and unboxing 92 4.3.1 Boxing conversions 92 4.3.2 Unboxing conversions 93 4.4 Constructed types 94 4.4.1 Type arguments 95 4.4.2 Open and closed types 95 4.4.3 Bound and unbound types 95 4.4.4 Satisfying constraints 96 4.5 Type parameters 97 4.6 Expression tree types 97
5.1 Variable categories 99 5.1.1 Static variables 99 5.1.2 Instance variables 99 5.1.2.1 Instance variables in classes 100 5.1.2.2 Instance variables in structs 100 5.1.3 Array elements 100 5.1.4 Value parameters 100 5.1.5 Reference parameters 100 5.1.6 Output parameters 101 5.1.7 Local variables 101 5.2 Default values 102 5.3 Definite assignment 102 5.3.1 Initially assigned variables 103 5.3.2 Initially unassigned variables 103 5.3.3 Precise rules for determining definite assignment 103 5.3.3.1 General rules for statements 104 5.3.3.2 Block statements, checked, and unchecked statements 104 5.3.3.3 Expression statements 104 5.3.3.4 Declaration statements 105 5.3.3.5 If statements 105 5.3.3.6 Switch statements 105 5.3.3.7 While statements 105 5.3.3.8 Do statements 106 5.3.3.9 For statements 106 5.3.3.10 Break, continue, and goto statements 106 5.3.3.11 Throw statements 106 5.3.3.12 Return statements 106 5.3.3.13 Try-catch statements 107 5.3.3.14 Try-finally statements 107 5.3.3.15 Try-catch-finally statements 108 5.3.3.16 Foreach statements 108 5.3.3.17 Using statements 109 5.3.3.18 Lock statements 109 5.3.3.19 Yield statements 109 5.3.3.20 General rules for simple expressions 109 5.3.3.21 General rules for expressions with embedded expressions 109 5.3.3.22 Invocation expressions and object creation expressions 110 5.3.3.23 Simple assignment expressions 110 5.3.3.24 && expressions 111 5.3.3.25 || expressions 111 5.3.3.26 ! expressions 112 5.3.3.27 ?? expressions 113 5.3.3.28 ?: expressions 113 5.3.3.29 Anonymous functions 113 5.4 Variable references 114 5.5 Atomicity of variable references 114
6.1 Implicit conversions 115 6.1.1 Identity conversion 115 6.1.2 Implicit numeric conversions 115 6.1.3 Implicit enumeration conversions 116 6.1.4 Implicit nullable conversions 116 6.1.5 Null literal conversions 116 6.1.6 Implicit reference conversions 117 6.1.7 Boxing conversions 117 6.1.8 Implicit constant expression conversions 118 6.1.9 Implicit conversions involving type parameters 118 6.1.10 User-defined implicit conversions 118 6.1.11 Anonymous function conversions and method group conversions 118 6.2 Explicit conversions 118 6.2.1 Explicit numeric conversions 119 6.2.2 Explicit enumeration conversions 121 6.2.3 Explicit nullable conversions 121 6.2.4 Explicit reference conversions 121 6.2.5 Unboxing conversions 122 6.2.6 Explicit conversions involving type parameters 122 6.2.7 User-defined explicit conversions 123 6.3 Standard conversions 123 6.3.1 Standard implicit conversions 124 6.3.2 Standard explicit conversions 124 6.4 User-defined conversions 124 6.4.1 Permitted user-defined conversions 124 6.4.2 Lifted conversion operators 124 6.4.3 Evaluation of user-defined conversions 125 6.4.4 User-defined implicit conversions 126 6.4.5 User-defined explicit conversions 126 6.5 Anonymous function conversions 127 6.5.1 Evaluation of anonymous function conversions to delegate types 128 6.5.2 Evaluation of anonymous function conversions to expression tree types 129 6.5.3 Implementation example 129 6.6 Method group conversions 132
7.1 Expression classifications 135 7.1.1 Values of expressions 136 7.2 Operators 136 7.2.1 Operator precedence and associativity 137 7.2.2 Operator overloading 138 7.2.3 Unary operator overload resolution 139 7.2.4 Binary operator overload resolution 139 7.2.5 Candidate user-defined operators 139 7.2.6 Numeric promotions 140 7.2.6.1 Unary numeric promotions 140 7.2.6.2 Binary numeric promotions 140 7.2.7 Lifted operators 141 7.3 Member lookup 142 7.3.1 Base types 143 7.4 Function members 143 7.4.1 Argument lists 146 7.4.2 Type inference 148 7.4.2.1 The first phase 149 7.4.2.2 The second phase 149 7.4.2.3 Input types 149 7.4.2.4 Output types 150 7.4.2.5 Dependence 150 7.4.2.6 Output type inferences 150 7.4.2.7 Explicit parameter type inferences 150 7.4.2.8 Exact inferences 150 7.4.2.9 Lower-bound inferences 150 7.4.2.10 Fixing 151 7.4.2.11 Inferred return type 151 7.4.2.12 Type inference for conversion of method groups 152 7.4.2.13 Finding the best common type of a set of expressions 152 7.4.3 Overload resolution 153 7.4.3.1 Applicable function member 153 7.4.3.2 Better function member 154 7.4.3.3 Better conversion from expression 155 7.4.3.4 Better conversion from type 155 7.4.3.5 Overloading in generic classes 156 7.4.4 Function member invocation 156 7.4.4.1 Invocations on boxed instances 157 7.5 Primary expressions 158 7.5.1 Literals 158 7.5.2 Simple names 158 7.5.2.1 Invariant meaning in blocks 160 7.5.3 Parenthesized expressions 161 7.5.4 Member access 161 7.5.4.1 Identical simple names and type names 163 7.5.4.2 Grammar ambiguities 163 7.5.5 Invocation expressions 164 7.5.5.1 Method invocations 164 7.5.5.2 Extension method invocations 166 7.5.5.3 Delegate invocations 168 7.5.6 Element access 168 7.5.6.1 Array access 169 7.5.6.2 Indexer access 169 7.5.7 This access 170 7.5.8 Base access 171 7.5.9 Postfix increment and decrement operators 171 7.5.10 The new operator 172 7.5.10.1 Object creation expressions 172 7.5.10.2 Object initializers 174 7.5.10.3 Collection initializers 175 7.5.10.4 Array creation expressions 177 7.5.10.5 Delegate creation expressions 179 7.5.10.6 Anonymous object creation expressions 180 7.5.11 The typeof operator 182 7.5.12 The checked and unchecked operators 183 7.5.13 Default value expressions 186 7.5.14 Anonymous method expressions 186 7.6 Unary operators 186 7.6.1 Unary plus operator 186 7.6.2 Unary minus operator 187 7.6.3 Logical negation operator 187 7.6.4 Bitwise complement operator 187 7.6.5 Prefix increment and decrement operators 188 7.6.6 Cast expressions 189 7.7 Arithmetic operators 189 7.7.1 Multiplication operator 190 7.7.2 Division operator 190 7.7.3 Remainder operator 192 7.7.4 Addition operator 193 7.7.5 Subtraction operator 194 7.8 Shift operators 196 7.9 Relational and type-testing operators 197 7.9.1 Integer comparison operators 198 7.9.2 Floating-point comparison operators 199 7.9.3 Decimal comparison operators 199 7.9.4 Boolean equality operators 200 7.9.5 Enumeration comparison operators 200 7.9.6 Reference type equality operators 200 7.9.7 String equality operators 202 7.9.8 Delegate equality operators 202 7.9.9 Equality operators and null 203 7.9.10 The is operator 203 7.9.11 The as operator 203 7.10 Logical operators 204 7.10.1 Integer logical operators 204 7.10.2 Enumeration logical operators 205 7.10.3 Boolean logical operators 205 7.10.4 Nullable boolean logical operators 205 7.11 Conditional logical operators 206 7.11.1 Boolean conditional logical operators 207 7.11.2 User-defined conditional logical operators 207 7.12 The null coalescing operator 207 7.13 Conditional operator 208 7.14 Anonymous function expressions 209 7.14.1 Anonymous function signatures 211 7.14.2 Anonymous function bodies 211 7.14.3 Overload resolution 212 7.14.4 Outer variables 212 7.14.4.1 Captured outer variables 213 7.14.4.2 Instantiation of local variables 213 7.14.5 Evaluation of anonymous function expressions 216 7.15 Query expressions 216 7.15.1 Ambiguities in query expressions 217 7.15.2 Query expression translation 217 7.15.2.1 Select and groupby clauses with continuations 218 7.15.2.2 Explicit range variable types 218 7.15.2.3 Degenerate query expressions 219 7.15.2.4 From, let, where, join and orderby clauses 219 7.15.2.5 Select clauses 223 7.15.2.6 Groupby clauses 223 7.15.2.7 Transparent identifiers 223 7.15.3 The query expression pattern 225 7.16 Assignment operators 226 7.16.1 Simple assignment 227 7.16.2 Compound assignment 229 7.16.3 Event assignment 229 7.17 Expression 230 7.18 Constant expressions 230 7.19 Boolean expressions 231 8. Statements 233 8.1 End points and reachability 233 8.2 Blocks 235 8.2.1 Statement lists 235 8.3 The empty statement 236 8.4 Labeled statements 236 8.5 Declaration statements 237 8.5.1 Local variable declarations 237 8.5.2 Local constant declarations 238 8.6 Expression statements 239 8.7 Selection statements 239 8.7.1 The if statement 239 8.7.2 The switch statement 240 8.8 Iteration statements 244 8.8.1 The while statement 244 8.8.2 The do statement 245 8.8.3 The for statement 245 8.8.4 The foreach statement 246 8.9 Jump statements 249 8.9.1 The break statement 250 8.9.2 The continue statement 251 8.9.3 The goto statement 251 8.9.4 The return statement 252 8.9.5 The throw statement 253 8.10 The try statement 254 8.11 The checked and unchecked statements 257 8.12 The lock statement 257 8.13 The using statement 258 8.14 The yield statement 260
9.1 Compilation units 262 9.2 Namespace declarations 262 9.3 Extern aliases 264 9.4 Using directives 264 9.4.1 Using alias directives 265 9.4.2 Using namespace directives 267 9.5 Namespace members 269 9.6 Type declarations 269 9.7 Namespace alias qualifiers 270 9.7.1 Uniqueness of aliases 271
10.1 Class declarations 273 10.1.1 Class modifiers 273 10.1.1.1 Abstract classes 274 10.1.1.2 Sealed classes 274 10.1.1.3 Static classes 275 10.1.2 Partial modifier 275 10.1.3 Type parameters 276 10.1.4 Class base specification 276 10.1.4.1 Base classes 276 10.1.4.2 Interface implementations 278 10.1.5 Type parameter constraints 278 10.1.6 Class body 282 10.2 Partial types 282 10.2.1 Attributes 282 10.2.2 Modifiers 283 10.2.3 Type parameters and constraints 283 10.2.4 Base class 284 10.2.5 Base interfaces 284 10.2.6 Members 284 10.2.7 Partial methods 285 10.2.8 Name binding 287 10.3 Class members 288 10.3.1 The instance type 289 10.3.2 Members of constructed types 290 10.3.3 Inheritance 291 10.3.4 The new modifier 291 10.3.5 Access modifiers 292 10.3.6 Constituent types 292 10.3.7 Static and instance members 292 10.3.8 Nested types 293 10.3.8.1 Fully qualified name 293 10.3.8.2 Declared accessibility 293 10.3.8.3 Hiding 294 10.3.8.4 this access 295 10.3.8.5 Access to private and protected members of the containing type 295 10.3.8.6 Nested types in generic classes 296 10.3.9 Reserved member names 297 10.3.9.1 Member names reserved for properties 298 10.3.9.2 Member names reserved for events 298 10.3.9.3 Member names reserved for indexers 298 10.3.9.4 Member names reserved for destructors 299 10.4 Constants 299 10.5 Fields 300 10.5.1 Static and instance fields 302 10.5.2 Readonly fields 302 10.5.2.1 Using static readonly fields for constants 303 10.5.2.2 Versioning of constants and static readonly fields 303 10.5.3 Volatile fields 304 10.5.4 Field initialization 305 10.5.5 Variable initializers 305 10.5.5.1 Static field initialization 306 10.5.5.2 Instance field initialization 308 10.6 Methods 308 10.6.1 Method parameters 310 10.6.1.1 Value parameters 311 10.6.1.2 Reference parameters 311 10.6.1.3 Output parameters 312 10.6.1.4 Parameter arrays 313 10.6.2 Static and instance methods 316 10.6.3 Virtual methods 316 10.6.4 Override methods 318 10.6.5 Sealed methods 320 10.6.6 Abstract methods 321 10.6.7 External methods 322 10.6.8 Partial methods 323 10.6.9 Extension methods 323 10.6.10 Method body 324 10.6.11 Method overloading 324 10.7 Properties 324 10.7.1 Static and instance properties 326 10.7.2 Accessors 326 10.7.3 Automatically implemented properties 331 10.7.4 Accessibility 331 10.7.5 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors 333 10.8 Events 335 10.8.1 Field-like events 336 10.8.2 Event accessors 338 10.8.3 Static and instance events 339 10.8.4 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors 339 10.9 Indexers 340 10.9.1 Indexer overloading 344 10.10 Operators 344 10.10.1 Unary operators 345 10.10.2 Binary operators 346 10.10.3 Conversion operators 347 10.11 Instance constructors 349 10.11.1 Constructor initializers 350 10.11.2 Instance variable initializers 351 10.11.3 Constructor execution 351 10.11.4 Default constructors 353 10.11.5 Private constructors 353 10.11.6 Optional instance constructor parameters 354 10.12 Static constructors 354 10.13 Destructors 356 10.14 Iterators 358 10.14.1 Enumerator interfaces 358 10.14.2 Enumerable interfaces 358 10.14.3 Yield type 358 10.14.4 Enumerator objects 358 10.14.4.1 The MoveNext method 359 10.14.4.2 The Current property 360 10.14.4.3 The Dispose method 360 10.14.5 Enumerable objects 361 10.14.5.1 The GetEnumerator method 361 10.14.6 Implementation example 361 11. Structs 369 11.1 Struct declarations 369 11.1.1 Struct modifiers 369 11.1.2 Partial modifier 370 11.1.3 Struct interfaces 370 11.1.4 Struct body 370 11.2 Struct members 370 11.3 Class and struct differences 370 11.3.1 Value semantics 371 11.3.2 Inheritance 372 11.3.3 Assignment 372 11.3.4 Default values 372 11.3.5 Boxing and unboxing 373 11.3.6 Meaning of this 375 11.3.7 Field initializers 375 11.3.8 Constructors 375 11.3.9 Destructors 376 11.3.10 Static constructors 376 11.4 Struct examples 376 11.4.1 Database integer type 376 11.4.2 Database boolean type 378
12.1 Array types 381 12.1.1 The System.Array type 382 12.1.2 Arrays and the generic IList interface 382 12.2 Array creation 382 12.3 Array element access 383 12.4 Array members 383 12.5 Array covariance 383 12.6 Array initializers 383
13.1 Interface declarations 387 13.1.1 Interface modifiers 387 13.1.2 Partial modifier 387 13.1.3 Base interfaces 388 13.1.4 Interface body 388 13.2 Interface members 388 13.2.1 Interface methods 390 13.2.2 Interface properties 390 13.2.3 Interface events 390 13.2.4 Interface indexers 390 13.2.5 Interface member access 391 13.3 Fully qualified interface member names 392 13.4 Interface implementations 393 13.4.1 Explicit interface member implementations 394 13.4.2 Uniqueness of implemented interfaces 396 13.4.3 Implementation of generic methods 397 13.4.4 Interface mapping 398 13.4.5 Interface implementation inheritance 401 13.4.6 Interface re-implementation 402 13.4.7 Abstract classes and interfaces 403
14.1 Enum declarations 405 14.2 Enum modifiers 405 14.3 Enum members 406 14.4 The System.Enum type 408 14.5 Enum values and operations 408 15. Delegates 409 15.1 Delegate declarations 409 15.2 Delegate compatibility 411 15.3 Delegate instantiation 411 15.4 Delegate invocation 412
16.1 Causes of exceptions 415 16.2 The System.Exception class 415 16.3 How exceptions are handled 415 16.4 Common Exception Classes 416
17.1 Attribute classes 419 17.1.1 Attribute usage 419 17.1.2 Positional and named parameters 420 17.1.3 Attribute parameter types 421 17.2 Attribute specification 421 17.3 Attribute instances 426 17.3.1 Compilation of an attribute 427 17.3.2 Run-time retrieval of an attribute instance 427 17.4 Reserved attributes 427 17.4.1 The AttributeUsage attribute 428 17.4.2 The Conditional attribute 428 17.4.2.1 Conditional methods 429 17.4.2.2 Conditional attribute classes 431 17.4.3 The Obsolete attribute 432 17.5 Attributes for Interoperation 433 17.5.1 Interoperation with COM and Win32 components 433 17.5.2 Interoperation with other .NET languages 433 17.5.2.1 The IndexerName attribute 433
18.1 Unsafe contexts 435 18.2 Pointer types 438 18.3 Fixed and moveable variables 440 18.4 Pointer conversions 441 18.5 Pointers in expressions 442 18.5.1 Pointer indirection 442 18.5.2 Pointer member access 442 18.5.3 Pointer element access 443 18.5.4 The address-of operator 444 18.5.5 Pointer increment and decrement 445 18.5.6 Pointer arithmetic 445 18.5.7 Pointer comparison 446 18.5.8 The sizeof operator 446 18.6 The fixed statement 447 18.7 Fixed size buffers 451 18.7.1 Fixed size buffer declarations 451 18.7.2 Fixed size buffers in expressions 452 18.7.3 Definite assignment checking 453 18.8 Stack allocation 453 18.9 Dynamic memory allocation 454
A.1 Introduction 457 A.2 Recommended tags 458 A.2.1 A.2.2 A.2.3 A.2.4 A.2.5 A.2.6 A.2.7
A.2.8
A.2.9
A.2.10
A.2.11 A.2.12 A.2.13 A.2.14 A.2.15 A.2.16 A.2.17 A.2.18 A.3 Processing the documentation file 467 A.3.1 ID string format 467 A.3.2 ID string examples 468 A.4 An example 472 A.4.1 C# source code 472 A.4.2 Resulting XML 475
B.1 Lexical grammar 480 B.1.1 Line terminators 480 B.1.2 Comments 480 B.1.3 White space 481 B.1.4 Tokens 481 B.1.5 Unicode character escape sequences 481 B.1.6 Identifiers 482 B.1.7 Keywords 483 B.1.8 Literals 483 B.1.9 Operators and punctuators 485 B.1.10 Pre-processing directives 485 B.2 Syntactic grammar 488 B.2.1 Basic concepts 488 B.2.2 Types 488 B.2.3 Variables 489 B.2.4 Expressions 490 B.2.5 Statements 496 B.2.6 Namespaces 500 B.2.7 Classes 501 B.2.8 Structs 508 B.2.9 Arrays 508 B.2.10 Interfaces 509 B.2.11 Enums 510 B.2.12 Delegates 510 B.2.13 Attributes 511 B.3 Grammar extensions for unsafe code 512
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