Metal
|
Application
|
Application Details
|
Percentage into Application
|
Primary Substitute
|
Substitute Performance
|
Analysis Details
|
Li
|
Batteries
|
Used in rechargeable batteries (i.e., lithium-ion and lithium polymer) and primary (disposable) lithium batteries (as the anode material)
|
25% (1) (global)
|
nickel-metal hydride batteries (rechargeable batteries substitute), and zinc for primary batteries (1)
|
good
|
|
Ceramics and glass
|
Reduces fusion temperatures, permits control of contaminant emissions, and produces a better quality product (2)
|
18% (1) (global)
|
sodium (1)
|
exemplary
|
|
Lubricating greases
|
Used in specialty lubricants and greases used for working in extreme temperature and change conditions (2)
|
12% (1) (global)
|
calcium (1, 3)
|
good
|
|
Pharmaceuticals and polymers
|
Used in pharmaceuticals (e.g., to treat bipolar disorder and as a catalyst in some new applications for weight control) and in polymers (2)
|
7% (1) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Air conditioning
|
Used in air conditioning and dehumidification systems
|
6% (1) (global)
|
ammonia/water systems (4)
|
poor
|
|
Primary aluminum production
|
Lowers the melting point of the cryolite bath in primary aluminum production (2)
|
4% (1) (global)
|
sodium (2)
|
good
|
|
Continuous casting
|
Addition of lithium to continuous casting mold fluxes provides thermal insulation and lubrication
|
3% (1) (global)
|
sodium
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes chemical processing
|
25% (1) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Be
|
Computer and telecommunications products
|
Serves as both a structural support and heat sink in product applications such as computers, cellular phones, integrated circuits, and radars
|
50% (global)
|
copper-nickel-silicon alloys
|
adequate
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
|
Aerospace and defense
|
Used in lightweight structural components
|
25% (global)
|
polymers
|
adequate
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
|
Other
|
Includes appliances, automotive and medical applications, electronics, and industrial components
|
25% (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
|
B
|
Ceramics and glass
|
Used in borosilicate glass for laboratory glassware and consumer cookware and to form high-strength, lightweight materials used in aerospace and consumer applications
|
64% (5) (global)
|
sodium (1)
|
good
|
Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Soaps, detergents, and bleaches
|
Used primarily in household laundry and cleaning products
|
4% (5) (global)
|
chlorine (for bleaches) and enzymes (for soaps and detergents) (1)
|
good
|
Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Agriculture
|
Serves as a micronutrient
|
4% (5) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Includes ferroboron, enamels, and glazes
|
27% (5) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Mg
|
Refractories
|
Used as a refractory material in furnace linings for iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement production
|
83% (6) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2002
Alumina, chromite, and silica substitute for magnesia in some refractory applications (1), but there is no single primary substitute
|
Environmental
|
Used in water treatment and stack-gas scrubbing
|
6% (6) (global)
|
lime
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2002
|
Agriculture
|
Serves as a micronutrient
|
5% (6) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2002
|
Other
|
Includes magnesium metal uses (e.g., in aluminum-based alloys used in packaging and transportation, structural uses, and desulfurization of iron and steel), welding fluxes, and chemicals
|
6% (6) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2002
|
Al
|
Transportation
|
Widely used in automotive and truck, railroad, marine, and aerospace industries as castings, extrusions, and sheets
|
28% (7) (global)
|
steel
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Building and construction
|
Used in windows, doors, facades siding, gutters, and roofing
|
24% (7) (global)
|
steel
|
good
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Packaging
|
Used primarily in cans and foil
|
15% (7) (global)
|
steel
|
good
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Electrical
|
Used in electrical lines for power transmission and distribution
|
12% (7) (global)
|
copper
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Machinery
|
Used in machinery tools, such as the mold material for the plastics industry
|
8% (7) (global)
|
steel
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Consumer durables
|
Includes use in cooking utensils and home appliances (e.g., refrigerators)
|
7% (7) (global)
|
copper
|
good
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Other
|
Includes use in applications like petrochemical piping and tanks
|
6% (7) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Sc
|
Aerospace and defense
|
Primarily used in aerospace and military vehicles (8, 9) as an alloying element with aluminum to provide strength and weldability (8, 10)
|
50% (informed estimate) (global)
|
aluminum itself, without addition of scandium
|
adequate
|
|
Lighting
|
Used in high-intensity metal halide lamps (11)
|
20% (informed estimate) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Sports equipment
|
Used primarily in bicycles, baseball bats, golf clubs, and lacrosse sticks (12)
|
20% (informed estimate) (global)
|
titanium
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes metallurgical research, analytical standards, capacitors, and transistors
|
10% (informed estimate) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Ti
|
Pigments
|
Used in paint, plastics, ceramics, and paper
|
88% (global)
|
talc
|
adequate
|
Based upon the estimate that 95% of total titanium supply is consumed in the form of titanium dioxide (13) and, globally, that 93% of titanium dioxide is used as a white pigment in paint, plastic, and paper from TZ Minerals International as cited in (14)
|
Other
|
Includes titanium metal uses and chemicals
|
12% (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
V
|
Full alloy steel
|
Used in castings and pipeline fittings
|
43% (global)
|
niobium (1, 15)
|
adequate
|
Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
|
High-strength low-alloy steel
|
Used in construction, pipelines, and automotive applications
|
32% (global)
|
niobium (1, 15)
|
adequate
|
Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
|
Carbon steel
|
Reinforces bars used mostly in the automobile industry and in construction
|
16% (global)
|
niobium (1, 15)
|
adequate
|
Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
|
Other
|
Includes use in batteries and jewelry
|
9% (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Cr
|
Buildings and infrastructure
|
Used in elevators, street furniture, and steel reinforced concrete
|
25% (17) (global)
|
manganese
|
adequate
|
Application is dominated by constructional alloys for which manganese, molybdenum, and nickel are considered adequate substitutes (18). Aluminum is an adequate substitute in elevators and street furniture. Galvanized steel is an adequate substitute in steel reinforced concrete.
Global values are for 2000
|
Industrial machinery
|
Used in chemical and petrochemical applications, as well as in power generation, food processing, heat exchangers, and tanks
|
25% (17) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Aluminum is a poor substitute in food processing equipment.
Global values are for 2000
|
Transportation
|
Used in cars, ships, trains, aircraft components, and bicycles
|
15% (17) (global)
|
aluminum
|
adequate
|
Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship, or for the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers. Tin-nickel, silicon-based coatings, and organic polymer films are adequate substitutes for automotive plating applications.
Global values are for 2000
|
Household appliances and electronics
|
Used in dishwashers, washing machines, and consumer electronics
|
5% (17) (global)
|
aluminum
|
adequate
|
Aluminum and plastic are good substitutes in white goods. Tin-nickel alloy is an adequate substitute for plating in electronics.
Global values are for 2000
|
