Review of Asian Studies Volume 18 (2016): 133-159

Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 18 (2016): 133-159

Head: Karbala

TRADITIONS OF BLOODSHED: THE BATTLES OF KARBALA AND THE ROLE OF AIR POWER
William Head 78ABW Office of History Robins AFB

Even before there were airplanes history records a notable Battle of Karbala, in present day Iraq. This first bloodletting took place in October 680 between Islamic factions. The most recent combat occurred during Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) when advancing Coalition forces on the southern route to Baghdad had to take the city of Karbala and the Karbala gap in order to open the way to final “victory” during the invasion phase of OIF. Over those 1,323 years the ability to kill one’s fellow man had expanded to include the use of high tech aerial weapons. While the original battle occurred when flight was only a part of Arabian Knights’ tales, by 2003, military aircraft had become a key component for attaining control of the battlefield.

Opening a Wound: The First Battle of Karbala
The first famous battle near Karbala took place during Muharram or 10 October 680 CE. One side was led by al-Husayn Ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and son of Ali, the fourth caliph. The other was led by Umar ibn Sa’ad sent by Caliph Yazid I of the Umayyad (Omayyad) Dynasty. Al-Husayn’s group had fewer than 100 men, women, and children. Most were close relatives of the prophet Muhammad. The battle took place in a desert region located just opposite one of the tributaries of the Euphrates River. Completely outnumbered, al-Husayn ibn Ali’s men fought to the death to protect their families. Ultimately, the men were massacred, while the women and children were taken into captivity. The immediate result was total control of the fledgling Islamic movement by the Umayyads. However, its cruelty led to subsequent revolts and the downfall of the dynasty. Since the battle, al-Husayn ibn Ali has been honored by Shi’ites during an annual 10-day celebration held every Muharram and culminating on Ashura, the tenth day. Today, Karbala is one of the holiest Shi’ite cities in Islam.¹


Modern day Karbala
The Evolution of Social, Political, and Military Conflict in the Region
The massacre at Karbala in 680 C.E. facilitated the rift in Islam that exists until this very day and that has contributed to the conflicts in the modern Persian Gulf and Mid-East regions of the world. America’s involvement was born out of its rush to fill the vacuum of power after World War II when colonial powers such as Great Britain and France withdrew from the developing nations of what was once known as the Third World. The United States’ support of Israel during the Arab-Israeli Wars drew the nation deeper and deeper into the politics of the area and eventually led them into combat. In 1980s, as U.S.-Iranian relations reached an historic low, President Ronald Reagan provided Iran’s neighbor Iraq with weapons and other support in its bloody and protracted war with Iran in order to provide a counter balance in the area. Since one nation was Sunni and the other Shia, this balancing act was not just about politics but also focused on socio-religious issues. Indeed, the battle mentioned earlier had led to the evolution of one region, later nation, into a Persian Sunni state and the other into an Arab Shi’ite state. These nations were the product of World War I and World War II political maneuvering by the states of Western Europe and after WW II grew into this later day conflict.²
In 1979, a Ba’athist Secularist Saddam Hussein seized power and began a reign of terror among his own people, especially minority cultural and religious groups. His war with Iran designed to reunite the core of the people in the nation had a high cost in lives and resources and left Iraq nearly bankrupt. Seeking to remedy his economic problems he struck out against his oil rich neighbor Kuwait. As a result, America’s erstwhile ally soon became its battlefield enemy when in 1990 Iraq invaded their tiny neighbor of Kuwait. Led by the U.S., a coalition of states denounced the invasion as naked aggression and demanded the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein withdraw his troops or face sanctions and perhaps military action by the allied states. In truth the basic reason for America’s concerns proved to be her anxieties for her nearby ally Saudi Arabia who was important for the supply of oil and other petroleum resources to America and dozens of her allies such as Great Britain, Japan, and Germany.
Once President George H. W. Bush convinced both the U.S. Congress and the United Nations of the virtue of his cause, war broke out between the Coalition forces and Iraq on 17 January 1991. This took the form of air strikes that first destroyed Iraqi Command, Control, and Communication (C3) centers in Baghdad and then expanded to the destruction of Iraqi ground forces, industrial and arms production centers, and eventually SCUD missile launch sites. In one spectacular example of the efficacy of Allied Airpower they even helped capped hundreds of oil well fires designed by Saddam Hussein to create ecological terrorism. In fact, the 38-day air campaign proved so devastating that by the time the ground campaign began, in late February, it took less than a week for Coalition army forces to retake Kuwait City and end the war with a sweeping victory.³
For the next 12 years Hussein and the U.S. played an aggravating game where the dictator would first deny weapons inspectors access to his nation and at the last minute relent. Religious factions caused tensions to rise in the area and led to the U.S. implementing no fly zones to protect Shi’ites, Kurd’s, and other minority cultural groups. The tension grew when it was discovered that the former President Bush had been targeted for assassination by the Iraqis during his visit to the area. While President Clinton responded with Cruise Missile strikes, when the elder Bush’s son, George W. Bush became President he began to seek ways to eliminate the dictator from power.
Conflicts in and around Karbala during OIF
Only weeks after he became President and roughly eight months before the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 (9/11), George W. Bush, advised by his neo-Conservative (Neo-Con) adviser, had ordered an operational plan be drawn up to invade Iraq and capture Baghdad. As a result, more than 1,300 years after the battle of 680, two modern military forces would meet in a series of engagements that proved pivotal in the outcome of the invasion phase of the Second Persian Gulf War. President George W. Bush announced the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom on 19 March 2003, during a live national television address. In his speech the President declared he had authorized the mission to rid Iraq of the tyrannical dictator, Saddam Hussein, and eliminate Hussein’s ability to develop Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). According to President Bush, this was part of his pledge to use unilateral, pre-emptive strikes, if necessary, against nations believed to be dangerous to American national security. He claimed this was a part of the retaliatory process against militant Islamic fundamentalist terrorists who had hijacked U.S. commercial airliners on 9/11 and flown them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon killing nearly 3,000 people.⁴
The March toward War in 2003
According to the Bush Administration, immediately following the 9/11 attacks, U.S. intelligence agencies increased investigations into Iraq’s possible connection to the terrorist organization al-Qaeda, which was responsible for the attacks. In his second State of the Union address in late January 2002, Bush identified Iraq as one of several “rogue nations” that financed and trained terrorists. He pointed to now-disputed intelligence that seemed to indicate that Iraq was negotiating with Niger to purchase vast quantities of yellowcake uranium (a product associated with the production of uranium ore) with the intent of creating WMDs.
Between 2002 and early 2003, United Nations (UN) weapons inspectors tried to discover if Hussein had violated UN resolutions against manufacturing biological, nuclear, and chemical weapons. Throughout; Hussein stalled in complying with the inspections. At first, after unsuccessful attempts to enlist the support of key UN Security Council nations including France and Germany, Bush announced the U.S. was prepared to launch military actions against Iraq. Eventually, Britain agreed to join in the attack. On 15 March, Bush gave Hussein and his sons 48 hours to leave Iraq or face war, a demand they defied. The UN inspectors evacuated Iraq on 17 March with incomplete reports on Iraq’s WMD capabilities. After gathering the support of a small contingent of international supporters, including Britain, Belgium, and Spain, Bush gave the green light to launch Operation Iraqi Freedom on 19 March.
In his speech to the nation at 1445 hours, Bush told the American public that Iraq was the next target in an ongoing, worldwide battle against terrorism that had begun with America’s attack on Afghanistan’s Taliban government on 7 October 2001. The President warned that “helping Iraqis achieve a united, stable, and free country will require our sustained commitment” and appeared to acknowledge substantial domestic opposition to the war by stating he “reluctantly” authorized military force but reaffirmed his Administration’s refusal to “live at the mercy of an outlaw regime that threatens the peace with weapons of mass murder.” ⁵



Invasion Map
In later years, President Bush was roundly criticized for the invasion. Critics claimed his administration primarily sought control of Iraq’s vast oil resources, or that the war was in retaliation for Saddam Hussein’s attempt on former President George H.W. Bush’s life in 1990. In addition, disclosures that the intelligence regarding the supposed Iraq and Niger yellowcake uranium deal was faulty reinforced the arguments against the Iraq war. Bush denied accusations that he and his advisors manipulated intelligence to justify a war and insisted the paramount goal was to rid Iraq of Hussein, stabilize the Middle East, and bring democracy to Iraq. While the dictator had gone into hiding shortly after the invasion began, U.S. forces finally captured Hussein on 14 December 2003.
Although Bush announced “mission accomplished” and the end of combat operations on 1 May 2003, Iraq continued to experience ongoing violence by insurgents while U.S. and Coalition troops and civilian contractors attempted to train an Iraqi army and police force and establish a freely elected government. In the first four years of OIF, American casualties totaled more than 3,000 with more than 23,000 wounded, while Iraqi civilian casualties were estimated at more than 50,000.⁶
One key issue to come out of the invasion itself must be the tactical plan used to defeat the Hussein regime. In 1990-1991, Airpower had led the way to a swift and relatively easy victory. Few Coalition forces were killed or wounded and the conflict was wildly popular at home in the U.S. Instead, this invasion plan focused on ground forces and took more than 40 days to complete. In many cases when the ground units were bogged down by Iraqi resistance they called in air strikes to blow open the defenses they faced. Ultimately, first phase this war took slightly longer than the First Gulf War. However, the first war was basically over when the treaties were signed. In spite of the President’s speech on 1 May 2003, this war was far from over. It was not until November 2011 that U.S. troops officially withdrew. The bloodiest battles of the war took place in places like Al-Fallujah, long after the President declared “mission accomplished.” Roughly 4,500 Americans died during this period and 30,000 were wounded. In addition, the Iraqi war diverted resources from the original war in Afghanistan which has still not ended. Last, but not least, many Middle Eastern experts argue that the rise and success of ISIS was born out of the U.S. destabilization of the region and the rise of anti-American/Western resentment evolving from the Second Gulf War and the creation of the prison facility at Guantanamo, Cuba.⁷
Recounting the Invasion
The Coalition invasion began the same Wednesday night the President made his speech to the nation. It commenced with air and missile attacks against key Iraqi leaders such as Saddam Hussein as well as important Command, Communications, and Control (C3) targets mostly in and around Baghdad. On the night of 21 March 2003, B-52Hs launched at least one hundred AGM-86C Conventional Air-Launched Cruise Missiles (CALCMs) at significant locations inside Iraq.⁸ This decapitation strike was followed by attacks by units of the Army’s 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment, 3rd Division and the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force (1 MEF) supported by British ground and Royal Air Force (RAF) air assaults, which seized control of the Faw Peninsular. Simultaneously, other Marine units captured the port of Umm Qasar. Allied aircraft also ramped up their strikes against targets in Baghdad unleashing their “shock and awe” air campaign. They also assaulted Saddam Hussein’s ancestral home near Tikrit. Ground attacks against Mosul and Kirkuk, in the north, resulted in the surrender of 8,000 troops of the 51st Iraq Army Division. All the while, aircraft of varying kinds continued to strike ahead of the rapidly advancing Coalition ground forces flying 1,500 Air Force and Navy aerial sorties.⁹
Even as Allied units came within reach of Karbala on 22-23 March, Iraqi troops bloodied a Marine unit in an ambush near the southeastern city of Nasiriya. This action caused Coalition leaders to rethink the direction of their advance and, eventually, led to the combat that took place in Karbala. At this point, Allied Air Power had already had a devastating impact on Iraqi defenses and allowed ground forces to push 150 miles into Iraq and cross the Euphrates River. Air strikes had beaten back enemy units near the river’s bridges and kept them from destroying the access routes toward Baghdad. This meant the speedy push could continue to make rapid progress toward ultimate conquest.¹⁰



Among the aircraft providing Close Air Support were the A-10 Warthogs
The Battles for Karbala Begin
Of the many engagements by Coalition forces during this invasion, some of the most important proved to be the ones in and near Karbala. These battles in Karbala and at Karbala Gap lasted from 23 March 2003 to 6 April 2003. By the 21st century, Karbala had become a city of 572,300 people in the center of Iraq near a strategic cross-roads leading to the Iraqi capital of Baghdad. During the initial phase of the 2003 Allied invasion of Iraq, advance units of the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division, after pushing their way through Republican Guard forces southeast of Karbala, arrived near the area on 22-23 March 2003. While some troops kept a watchful eye on the Iraqis in Karbala, the main body made plans to bypass the city and attack Baghdad through the heavily defended Karbala Gap. This meant Allied forces would eventually have to defeat the Iraqis in Karbala at some later date.¹¹
The initial helicopter assault actually began on 24 March 2003, several hours before the main body of the 3rd Division moved around Karbala toward Baghdad. That morning, units of the 11th Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, struck members of the Republican Guard’s 2nd Iraqi Armored Brigade, Medina Division. Allied leaders decided to strike the Medina Division, which was mostly deployed along the Karbala Gap, west of the city of Karbala itself, since they were the best equipped Iraqi unit, and its destruction would devastate Iraqi military morale. Instead, the Medina Division absorbed only minor damage during the engagement. Afterward, experts determined this had been Iraq’s only “real” victory during the invasion.¹²
One of the worst aspects of the engagement came when the Iraqis shot down an American AH-64 Apache helicopter intact. They captured the two pilots and showed them off on television along with the helicopter. Subsequently, Pentagon officials stated the captured Apache was destroyed by a U.S. Air Force airstrike the following day. Iraqi officials claimed a farmer with a Brno rifle shot down the Apache, a claim the farmer later denied.¹³ In fact, the claim seemed ridiculous since the rifle mentioned was a Czech-made Turkish post World War I rifle with limited capabilities. Even so, the news of these events improved Iraqi optimism, which was already high after putting up such stiff resistance at the Battle of Nasiriya. Ultimately, this initial attack went from an expected continuation of America’s “shock and awe” tactics that had demoralized the enemy during the first Gulf War, to an embarrassment.¹⁴

The AH-64s had been experiencing several tactical problems before the operation. While they were built to be used in open and flat terrain, the area around the Iraqi capital was not desert, rather a metropolitan environment replete with urban sprawl. This was a lesson that should have been learned during the 1993 Battle of Mogadishu. This battle had already demonstrated that helicopters, like these, were vulnerable over cities. Moreover, Karbala’s urban area still had electricity, since its infrastructure had been spared to hasten post-war recovery. Allied intelligence was also faulty, and the information on the enemy’s disposition proved to be wrong. This forced the helicopters to search the target area themselves. Prior to the attack, intelligence reports had identified 30 T-72 tanks in the area. They were not present at all!

To make matters worse, officials’ decision to speed up their timetable caused coordination issues. The 3rd Infantry Division moved ahead of schedule causing the mission to be pushed up 24 hours. Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) sorties were launched faster than anticipated, and the Apaches were not ready to join the mission. As a result, they arrived after a three hour delay, and the SEAD fighter-bombers had departed leaving the helicopters without support. The three hour delay provided Iraqi air defenses time to recover.¹⁵


AH-64D Apache Longbow

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